The Muluk ut- Tawaif or Petty Kings — Their mutual divisions — Gradual extension of the Christian power — The Almoravides— Yusuf bin Tashfin — The Battle of Zallaka — Death of Yusuf bin Tashfin — Is succeeded by his son Ali — His death — Collapse of the Almoravide Empire — The Almohades — Abdul Momin — Abii Yakub Yousuf, Abii Yusuf Yakub (al-Mansur)— Battle of Alarcos — Death of Yakub — Accession of Mohammed an-Nasir — Disaster of al-Aakab — Collapse of the Almohade Empire — Rise of the Banu-Ahmar— The kingdom of Granada.
The political convulsions in the capital gave to the provincial governors and magnates the opportunity for proclaiming their independence. Malaga, Algeciras, and the neighbouring districts were seized by the Banu Hamud who assumed the title of Ameer ul-Momineen. They continued to rule in these parts until dispossessed by the king of Granada in 1057 a.c. Granada fell into the hands of the Berber chief Zawi. His family held this kingdom until 1090 a.c. Seville with the western districts (including Algarve) was possessed by the Banu Abbad. The founder of this family was the Chief Kazi of Seville, Abu Kasim Mohammed, surnamed Ibn Abbad. The last of the Banu Abbad was Mutamid, who was deported to Africa by Yusuf bin Tashfin. Toledo was held by the Banu Zu'n-nun, who made famous by their lavish splendour. The last of the Zu'n-nun, Kadir, surrendered the city to Alfonso in 1085 A.c. The Banu Hud, descended from one of the generals of Abdur Rahman III., held Saragossa until 1118 a.c. when it was captured by the Christians under Ramire. Badajoz, Valencia, Murcia, and Almeria were similarly ruled by independent chiefs. Denia and the islands of the Mediterranean were in the hands of Mujahid bin Abdullah al-Aamiri, surnamed Abu Juyush ("the father of the army"). "He was an undaunted warrior and an experienced sailor. He kept a considerable fleet always ready for sea, with which he made descents on the coast of France and Italy. As long as he lived no Christian vessel dared to furrow the waters of the Bahr ush-Sham (Sea of Sham)." These petty sovereigns, collectively designated Muluk ut-Tawaif were one and all munificent patrons of learning and arts. In fact, each endeavoured to outvie the other in his encouragement of letters. Many of them were themselves accomplished litterateurs and poets. And the Arab historian justly remarks that "when, after the breaking of the necklace and the scattering of its pearls, the petty kings divided among themselves the patrimony of the Banu Ommeya, the cause of science and literature, instead of losing, gained considerably by the division."
Had they been united among themselves, or possessed any solidarity of interest, they might have opposed a steady front to the attacks of the Christian Spaniards, which at this time naturally increased in violence. Their mutual dissensions and jealousies paved the way for their destruction. Some even entered into alliance with the Christians against their Moslem rivals. In the year 1055 a.c, Ferdinand I., King of Castile and Leon, fell on the disunited Saracens with all his forces, and drove them from many important places. Mutazid, the King of Seville, saved himself by agreeing to pay tribute to the Leonese. He died in 1069 a.c, leaving the kingdom to his son Mutamid. In 1075 a.c. Mutamid captured Cordova, and shortly after reduced the entire Toledan country, stretching from the Guadalquiver to the Guadiana. On the death of Ferdinand I., in 1065 a.c, his son Alfonso VI had ascended the throne of Castile. Ambitious and unscrupulous, he expelled his brothers from their kingdoms, and made himself the supreme ruler of Leon, Castile, Galicia and Navarre, and assumed the title of emperor. Not satisfied with the tribute paid by his Arab vassals, he determined to reduce the whole peninsula under his direct sway. Possessed of a splendid army composed of hardy warriors drawn from all parts of Europe, he declared himself ready to fight with "genii demons, or the angels of heaven." In 1085 a.c. Kadir, the last of the Zu'n-nun kings, surrendered to him the important city of Toledo. His pride now knew no bounds. Granada, Badajoz, Seville, and the few other cities that still remained in Moslem hands, saw clearly the fate in store for them, and looked on all sides for help against the threatened danger. Within the peninsula, however, internecine disputes made a general combination against the common foe hopeless. They therefore cast their eyes abroad.
Whilst the Islamic empire in Spain was falling to pieces, a new Power had sprung up in Western Africa. The Berbers of the Sahara, called the Mulassamin had recently been converted to Islam. Under their spiritual leaders, who bore the title of marabut or saints, they had made vast conquests, and, at the time we are speaking of, their empire extended from Senegambia to Algeria. Their kings were called the al- Marabita, corrupted into Almoravides. The famous Yusuf bin Tashfin, who had shortly before been invested Caliph of Bagdad with the proud tide of Ameer Muslimin, "Commander of the Moslems," was their ruler. And to him, persuaded by the ministers of religion, the Saracen kings of Spain addressed their appeal for help. In response to their prayers, Yusuf bin Tashfin crossed to Spain in October 1086 a.c. Near crosses Seville he was joined by the forces of Mutamid and the other Andalusian chiefs, and the united army marched 1086 a.c. towards Badajoz (Bazios or Batlios). Alfonso met them at a place called Zallaka, about four leagues to the south of Badajoz. The Saracens numbered twenty thousand all told, whilst the force under Alfonso amounted to over sixty thousand seasoned soldiers. A frightful and sanguinary battle took place on Friday, 12 Rajab October 23, 1086 a.c. Alfonso fled, says Ibn ul-Athir, from the scene or action with only three hundred cavaliers, whilst the rest lay dead or dying on the field.
The victory of Zallaka paralysed for a time the Christian kingdom of Leon. Yusuf bin Tashfin did not on this occasion tarry long in Spain; on his return in the following year he expelled the Spanish kings from their dominions, which he incorporated with the Almoravide empire. The whole of Andalusia as far as the Tagus was now virtually under the sceptre of the Emperor of Morocco. The fakihs who had so actively co-operated in bringing over the Almoravides acquired great influence under these sovereigns. "One must go back," says Dozy, "to the times of the Visigoths to discover another example of a clergy so powerful as the Moslem clergy were under the Almoravide rule." They carried their narrow prejudice so far as to place under the ban Imam al-Ghazzali's celebrated work on "the Revival of Learning and Religion."
Whilst Yusuf lived the Christians were in continual terror of his arms. He died in the year 1106 a.c, and. was succeeded by his son Ali, surnamed Abu'l Hassan followed in the footsteps of his able father, "although," says the historian, "he fell short of him in some things." He defeated the Christian tribes several times and took from them Talavera, Madrid (Majrit), Guadalaxara (Wadi ul-Hijara), and many other fortresses and towns, whilst his general, Sir Ibn Abi Bakr, re-took the cities of Santarem (Shanterim), Badajoz, Oporto (Bortokal), Evora (Teborah), and Lisbon (Alishbdna). These gains, however, were counterbalanced by the loss of Saragossa (Sarakusteh), Calatayud (Kalat Ayub), and other important places beyond the Tagus, which were captured by a combined army of Aragonese, Catalonians, and Franks from beyond the Pyrenees. Whilst the Almoravides were thus engaged in Andalusia, a new development, fraught with the most disastrous consequences to their rule, was taking place in Africa.
In the year 514 of the Hegira, a man of the name Mohammed, surnamed Ibn Tumart, a native of Sus in Western Africa, appeared among the Berbers inhabiting the vast chain of mountains which intersects Mauritania. He was an Arab by descent, but belonged by adoption to one of the Berber tribes. In his youth he had travelled in the East and studied philosophy and jurisprudence under various masters, such as al-Ghazzali, Abu Bakr at-Tartushi (of Tortosa), and others. On his return to his native land, disgusted with the laxity of morals prevailing among all classes of society, and the excessive veneration paid by the commonalty to saints, he commenced to preach a reform among the wild inhabitants of the Atlas, and announced himself as the Mahdi whose advent had been foretold by the Prophet. An enormous following soon gathered round him. Ibn Tumart chose for his lieutenant a young man of the name of Abdul Momin, the son of a rich merchant. His followers and disciples styled themselves al-Muwwahhidun or Unitarians. Gradually the power of the Unitarians increased, and before long they formed an extensive kingdom, chiefly at the expense of the Murabite empire. So long as Ali bin Tashfin lived they were kept in check. He died in 1143 a.c, and was succeeded by his son Tashfin, who was wholly incapable of coping with the Unitarians. He was killed in the year 1145 a.c, and the empire of Morocco passed into the hands of Abdul Momin. The struggle between Almoravide and Almohade furnished a glorious opportunity to the Christian Spaniards for ravaging the Moslem territories in Spain, and committing the most appalling atrocities on the Saracens. Alphonso VI., who, like his grandfather Alphonso VI., had assumed the title of Emperor, carried fire and sword to the very walls of Cordova, Seville and Carmona; pillaged and burnt Xeres, and penetrated as far as Gaudix (Wadi-Ash). Five years later he devastated the fertile districts of Jaen, Baeza, Ubeda and Andujar. Again the Andalusian Moslems appealed for help to their brethren across the straits. In the year 541 a.h., Abdul Momin sent an army and fleet to their assistance. His generals beat back the Christians, reduced the Almoravide governors who had assumed independent authority in several districts, and practically brought Andalusia under his sway. Four years later he divided his vast empire into provinces, and appointed his sons as governors over them. In the year 554 a.h. (1160 a.c.) he took Mahdieh from the Franks, and assumed the title of Ameer ul-Mominin. With the conquest of this important city he became the master of the whole of Northern Africa, from the deserts of Barca westward to the Atlantic.
Abdul Momin died in the year 1163 a.c, after a successful reign of over thirty-three years. He was a fair man with blue eyes, austere, brave, wise and energetic, and favoured learned men. Learning and arts flourished in all parts of his empire, especially in Spain. He had established in Morocco numerous public colleges and schools. Upon his death his son Mohammed was first raised to the throne, but owing to his incapacity and idleness, the grandees of the empire deposed him, and elected in his place his brother Abu Yakub Yusuf. He was humane and generous prince, and his elevation promised to the people a happy and prosperous reign. He came to Spain several times and re-conquered many cities, among others Tarragona and Santarem. Yusuf died in the year 1184 a.c, and was succeeded by his son the celebrated Yakub, under whom the empire of the Almohades attained the highest pitch of glory. He is described as a wise and accomplished sovereign. A successful war with Alfonso IX of Castile had ended in a truce for five years. Hardly had it expired when the Castilian army, swelled by large bodies of volunteers from across the Pyrenees, invaded Andalusia, "plundering and slaying all before them, and committing horrible depredations and ravages." On receipt of this news Yakub crossed over from Africa. The Franks on their side collected troops "from the remotest parts of Christendom," and in 591 a.h. (1195 a.c.) with a large army attacked the Almohade sovereign at a place called Alarcos (al-Aark) in the neighbourhood of Badajos. They suffered a fearful defeat, in which it is said they lost one hundred and forty-six thousand men, besides thirty thousand prisoners. The remnant of the Christian army fled to Calatrava, where they fortified themselves, but the place was stormed. Alfonso fled to Toledo, where he gathered another large army to oppose the Almohade sovereign; he was again disastrously beaten. Calatrava, Guadalaxara, Madrid, Escelona, Salamanca, and other cities and fortresses, both in Spain and Portugal which had fallen into his hands were re-conquered. In November 1196 a.c. Yakub laid siege to Toledo, which was reduced to the last extremity. "The mother of Alfonso, accompanied by his wives and daughters, then came out of the city, and, with tears in her eyes implored the conqueror to spare the city. Being moved to compassion, Yakub not only granted the request, but after paying them due honour, dismissed them with splendid presents in jewels and other valuable articles." After relieving Madrid, which was blockaded by the Aragonese, who incontinently took to flight on his approach, he returned to Seville. Here he abode for a year, discussing terms with the envoys of the Christian princes "who had come to sue for peace, which he granted." He also made various dispositions regarding the government of Andalusia. Towards the end of 1197 he returned to his African dominions, where he remained until his death in 1199 a.c. Yakub was a contemporary of Saladin, and it was to him that the great sovereign of Asia had sent as ambassador the nephew of Ameer Osama, soliciting his aid against the Crusaders.
Yakub was a munificent patron of arts and letters. "He protected the learned," says an old writer, "because he was a scholar himself; he respected religion and manners because he was virtuous and pious." His army was well-disciplined, and kept under strict control. His government was firm and just. He established hospitals and infirmaries in every city within his dominions, where the sick and ailing received treatment, and the indigent and infirm were maintained and taken care of. The famous physicians Avenzoar (Ibn Zuhr) and Avenpace (Ibn Baja) flourished in his reign. So did the philosopher and scientist Averroes (Ibn Rushd), who held the post of Kazi of Cordova. Like the Abbasside Rashid and Mamum, and the Ommeyade sovereigns of Spain, he paid great attention to the irrigation of the country, and the comfort and safety of merchants and travellers, and embellished the cities of his empire with fine buildings. The famous observatory at Seville, now called the Giralda, was built by him after the battle of Alarcos.
Yakub al-Mansur was succeeded by his son Mohammed, who assumed the same title as Abdur Rahman III., an-Nasir li-dhi-Illah. An-Nasir was very different from his father both in character and ability. Fond of pleasure and devoid of capacity, he became the primary cause of the ruin of the Almohade empire, and with it of the Saracenic cause in Spain.
The death of Yakub al-Mansur was the signal for the Christians to resume their attacks on Andalusia. Alphonso IX of Castile again inundated the country round Seville and Cordova with his troops, and laid it waste with fire and sword. To avenge the atrocities committed on his subjects, an-Nasir with a large army crossed over from Ceuta (Sibta). Shortly after his arrival in Seville he put to death Yusuf ibn Kadis, the governor of Calatrava (Kalat Rabah), for surrendering it to Alfonso. The execution of this officer, who was highly respected by the Andalusian Moslems, not only caused great discontent among them, but led to their defection on the field of battle. The news of an-Nasir's preparations had caused a ferment among the Christian nations. Driven from Asia by the victorious arms of Saladin, the hordes of adventurers who, under the name of Crusaders, had harried Palestine and Syria, betook themselves to Spain. Innocent III. proclaimed a crusade, and Roderiquez, the Archbishop of Toledo, who had gone to Rome to solicit the aid of the Pope, preached everywhere a holy war against the Saracens. The kings of Castile, Aragon, Portugal, Leon, and Navarre, joined by a host of Crusaders from France, Italy, and Germany, marched against the Almohades. The two armies met at a place called al-Ukab by the Arabs, and Las Navas de Tolosa by the Spaniards. At the first shock of battle the Andalusian contingent either left the field or deserted to the enemy. The Africans fought heroically, but were overwhelmed and destroyed to a man. An-Nasir was with difficulty induced to leave the scene of disaster. From Seville he went to Morocco, where he died, it is said of grief and shame, in the year I214 a.c.
Nasir was succeeded on the throne of the Muwwahaddin Caliphate by his son Yusuf, who assumed the title of al-Mustansir b’Illah. He was only sixteen years of age at the time, and naturally all the power fell into the hands of "the Shaikhs of the Muwwahiddin." He died in 1223 a.c, when Sid Abu Mohammed Abdul Wahid was placed on the throne. Under him the Almohade princes and governors in Spain became practically independent. Upon Abdul Wahid's assassination in the following year, the Almohades elected as their sovereign a son of al-Mansur named Abu Mohammed, under the title of al-Aadil. In the year 1227 a.c. a revolt broke out against al-Aadil, who was killed by the rebels. Thereupon his brother Idris, who held the governorship of Seville, proclaimed himself Caliph, under the title of al-Mamun. Murcia and the greater part of Eastern Andalusia, however, under the leadership of Ibn Hud, fell away from him. In 1228 a.c, Mamun proceeded to Africa with a number of Christian auxiliaries furnished by the King of Castile. His departure was the signal for a revolt in Seville, which, throwing off the yoke of the Almohades, acknowledged the authority of Ibn Hud, who thus became the master of the greater part of Andalusia. The Almohades were either expelled or killed "by the infuriated mob."
But Ibn Hud was not the only Spanish Arab who rose to power on the debris of the Muwwahhidun empire. Zayyan (Abu Jamil) assumed the kingly title in Valencia; whilst Mohammed bin Yusuf, commonly known as Ibn ul-Ahmar, established himself in the city and fortress of Arjona. Of all the aspirants to royal dignity Ibn ul-Ahmar proved the most successful, for he founded a kingdom in which centred for the next two centuries and a half the splendid civilisation of the Arabs. Ibn Khaldun, who resided at Granada in the court of one of Ibn ul-Ahmar's successors, describes the rapid rise of this remarkable adventurer. His ancestors had long been settled in Spain under the name of the Banu-Nasr, and under the Ommeyade Caliphs had held important offices in the jund or army. Mohammed, who was generally styled the Shaikh was at this period the head of the Banu Nasr, and by his character and ability exercised great influence among his kinsmen. "When the fortunes of the Muwwahhidin began to decline, and their affairs became weak, and the chiefs began to give up their castles to the enemy, Ibn ul-Ahmar also assumed the title of Sultan." "The whole of Andalusia," adds Ibn Khaldun, "now became a prey to civil war," and the Castilians did not fail to take advantage of "the divisions and perversity" of the Saracen chiefs. They set one against the other, and destroyed each in turn. In the beginning of his reign, Ibn ul-Ahmar had entered into an alliance with the King of Castile, in order to obtain his assistance against Ibn Hud. The latter on his side gave the Christian thirty castles for similar aid against Ibn ul-Ahmar. And thus the conflict proceeded. In 1236 the Castilians captured Cordova; Valencia fell into their hands two years later. In 1239 a.c. they took Acira, and in 1246 a.c. Murcia, finally driving Zayyan to Tunis. In 1248 a.c, after a protracted siege of fifteen months, Seville capitulated to them.
Whilst the Castilians were thus destroying his rivals, Ibn ul-Ahmar contrived to gain possession of Xeres, Jaen, Granada, Malaga, and Almeria, and, by a combination of tact and ability of the highest order, consolidated his power in this small and shrunken kingdom, which was to make head for the next two hundred years against the combined forces of Christian Spain and Portugal, assisted by frequent relays of Crusaders from beyond the Pyrenees. But from the outset it was an unequal contest, and the final collapse of Ibn ul-Ahmar's kingdom was only a question of time. Still the struggle was heroically sustained to the very end.
After the conquest of Granada Ibn ul-Ahmar made it the seat of his government, and assumed the title of al-Ghalib b'Illah. He built for himself here the famous castle and palace of Alhambra (al-Hamra) which was enlarged and still further embellished by his successors. The keystone of Ibn ul-Ahmar's policy was to keep in close amity with the Marinide sovereigns of Mauritania. And for this reason their names were joined with his in the prayers offered at the mosques within his kingdom. In 660 A.H. (1261 a.c.) a war broke out between him and his quondam ally, the Christian King of Castile, who invaded the kingdom of Granada, but was beaten back. Ibn ul-Ahmar died in 1272 a.c, and was suceeded by his son, Abu Abdullah Mohammed. Himself a scholar and jurist, he was a great patron of learning. In 1274 a.c. Granada was again invaded by the Castilians under a general called by the Arabs Don Nunoh (Nuno Gonzalez de Lara), but with the assistance of the Marinide sovereign Mohammed defeated them in an action in which the Castilian chief lost his life. Eleven years later a fresh war broke out between the Castilians and Saracens, which lasted to the close of the century, in which Mohammed was equally successful. He died in 1302 a.c, after a prosperous reign of over thirty years, and was succeeded by his son, who bore the same name. He reigned with wisdom and ability until 1307 a.c, when a revolt on the part of his brother Nasr led to his abdication. Nasr proved an unlucky king. Immediately after his elevation he was attacked by the kings of Castile and Aragon, and was only able to buy them off, by consenting to pay an annual tribute. In 1314 a.c. he was forced to vacate the throne in favour of Ismail, a grandson of Ismail, the brother Of Ibn ul-Ahmar, the founder of the dynasty. In 1316 a.c. the Castilians captured from him a number of cities, although three years later he succeeded in inflicting on them a memorable defeat at Elvira. In the year 1319 a.c, a large army was despatched by the Castilian king under the command of his son Pedro (Don Betroh) for the final subjugation of Granada. The Infante was accompanied by twenty-five princes, among them a prince of England of who had joined the Castilians with an English contingent. All of them, including Don Pedro, fell in the action.
On the assassination of Ismail in the year 1325 a.c, Abdullah Mohammed, was raised to the throne. He proved a vigorous and successful ruler. Gibraltar, which had been seized by the Christians, was wrested from their hands. Whilst returning from an inspection of the fortifications, Sultan Mohammed was attacked and killed by a band of assassins who lay concealed behind a rock. He was succeeded by his brother, Abu'l Hajjaj Yusuf, one of the most enlightened sovereigns of the Banu-Nasr dynasty. Under his just and liberal administration the kingdom prospered, and the people were happy and contented. Like his ancestors he was a zealous patron of literature and science. Unluckily for the Moslems of Andalusia his reign did not last long, for in the year 1354 a.c. he His was stabbed by a madman whilst performing his devotions in the mosque of his palace. He was succeeded by his son, also named Mohammed, who assumed the title of al-Ghani b'Illah. Al-Ghani was a cultured and scholarly sovereign, and encouraged and fostered learning and arts within his dominions. He had for his vizier the famous Ibn ul-Khatib, surnamed Lisan ud-din or "the Tongue of Religion," the historian of the Banu-Nasr dynasty.
During a temporary absence from the capital, al-Ghani found himself displaced by his half-brother Ismail. Al-Ghani then proceeded to Africa, and took up his abode in Fez. Ismail did not hold his ill-gotten power for long for he was killed in a revolt headed by Abu Said, also called Abu Abdullah Mohammed. Two years later Abu Said was forced to take refuge with the King of Castile, who murdered him for his riches. On the death of Said, al-Ghani returned to Granada, and was received by the fickle people with wild acclamations of joy. The remainder of his reign passed undisturbed, and the peace which, by his tact and skill, he maintained with the Castilians, enabled the kingdom to advance in wealth and prosperity. Arts and industry recovered their old activity in Granada; commerce brought to its door all the treasures of the Levant and the far East, and the country was fertilised by numerous new irrigation works. Al-Ghani died in 1391 a.c, amidst universal mourning, and was succeeded by his son, Abu Abdullah Yusuf. The reign of this sovereign was not fortunate. Wishful himself to follow in the footsteps of his father, he desired to maintain amicable relations with the Castilians; but, as has often happened in modern times, popular excitement caused him to engage in a war which was not uniformly successful. The enthusiasm of the Granadans did not, however, last long, and Yusuf was able to conclude a peace on favourable terms with the young king Henry III.
Yusuf II had designated his eldest son, also named Yusuf, a prince endowed with talent and virtue, as his successor; but on his death in 1396 a.c, the throne was seized by the younger Mohammed, who confined his brother in the castle of Salobrena. In 1405 a.c. the Castilian frontier guard raided into the territories of Granada. Instead of asking for redress from their king, Mohammed took in his own hand their punishment. In the war which followed the losses on the two sides were fairly balanced. On the death of Mohammed VI, in 1408 A.c, Sid Yusuf was brought out from his prison and proclaimed king. The first care of Yusuf was to obtain a prolongation of the armistice with the Castilians. Two years later war broke out afresh between the two nations, which was equally inconclusive; and a short truce was followed by a treaty of peace, which lasted during the whole of Yusuf's lifetime. At this period the throne of Castile was occupied by the infant son of Henry III under the regency of his mother.
The Castilian Queen held the Saracen sovereign in the highest estimation, and the relations between the two were extremely cordial. Every year they forwarded rich presents to each other, and carried on a warm and active correspondence. Castilian and Aragonese cavaliers, aggrieved by their own government, frequently took shelter in Yusuf's court. Many came to Granada to settle questions of honour, which they invariably referred to his arbitration; and if it came to combat he often interfered to stop the battle and to bring about reconciliation between the contending parties. His kindness of heart, his justice, benevolence, and virtues endeared him to foreigners equally with his own people. The harmony which prevailed during his reign between the Castilians and the Saracens helped the latter in part to repair their losses, and to enjoy the blessings of peace, which had not been known for a long time.
This good king died in 827 A.H. (1423 a.c.) after a reign of fifteen years, to the sincere grief of all his subjects. With him ended the happy days of Granada. He was succeeded by his son Mohammed, surnamed al-Aisar, or the left-handed. Proud and morose, he soon made himself extremely unpopular among the Granadans. He stopped the tournaments and public fetes so dear to Granada, and introduced various other regulations highly distasteful to its pleasure-loving people. Suddenly they rose in revolt and drove him from the capital. Recalled, he was again expelled, and the throne was seized by a noble named Yusuf, belonging to the royal family, who was assisted by John II., the King of Castile. Yusuf, however, died in a few months, and Mohammed VII again recovered his kingdom. In 1433 a.c. the Castilians invaded Granada, and although they suffered a murderous defeat under the walls of Archidona, they laid waste a considerable part of the districts of Guadix (Wadi-Ash) and Granada proper.
In 1444 a.c. Mohammed was finally deposed by his nephew, Ibn ul-Ahnaf, also named Mohammed; and the people, won over by his larggeses acknowledged him as their king. A large body of nobles, however, betook themselves to Castile, and gave their adhesion to Saad, surnamed Ibn Ismail, a cousin of Ibn ul-Ahnaf, who had taken refuge with John II. With a large body of Castilians, and accompanied by the malcontent nobles, Ibn Ismail invaded Granada, and for five years the Saracens were plunged in a cruel and sanguinary civil war. Ibn ul-Ahnaf was finally defeated in 1454 a.c, and Ibn Ismail seated himself on the throne of the Banu Ahmar. His first care was to send ambassadors and presents to Henry IV., the King of Castile, to obtain a renewal of the peace. The Castilian, however, refused the request and invaded Granada. The devastating war lasted several years, and the Saracens suffered grievously from the ravages of the Christian Spaniards. Their homesteads were reduced to ashes, their fields and plantations were ruthlessly destroyed, their beautiful palaces and mansions and the works of irrigation which fertilised the soil were irrevocably ruined. In such a conflict, the advantages were all on the side of the Christians, for even the victories of the Saracens brought no fruit; the Castilian centres of population were far away, and the kingdom of Granada was now cooped between the sea, the mountains of Elvira, and the chain of the Alpuxarras (al-Busharat). The Castilians surprised and captured
Archidona and Gibraltar. These disasters broke the spirit of Ibn Ismail. He saw that if the war continued longer the kingdom would be ruined altogether; he accordingly made every sacrifice for obtaining peace. He acknowledged Henry IV as his suzerain, and bound himself to pay an annual tribute of twelve thousand pieces of gold, and this treaty was ratified in a personal interview between the two kings in the neighbourhood of Granada. The peace thus concluded lasted until the death of Ibn Ismail in 1466 a.c.
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