Sunday, 13 September 2015

A Short History of Saracens:Chapter XXI


Caliph Mustazhir — Sultan Barkyaruk — His wars with Tutush, his uncle, and his brother Mohammed — Death of Barkyaruk — Accession of Mohammed to the Sultanate— Discord among the vassals — The progress of the Crusaders — Death of Sultan Mohammed — Death of the Caliph Mustazhir — Accession of the Caliph Mustarshid — Sultan Sanjar, Sultan of the East — Sultan Mahmud, of Irak and Syria — Rise of Imad ud-din Zangi (Sanguin) — Death of Mahmud — Accession of Sultan Masud — Assassination of Mustarshid — Election of Rashid as Caliph — Deposed by Masud — Accession of Muktafi as Caliph — War of Zangi with the Crusaders— His victories — The death of Zangi — The accession of Nur ud-din Mahmud — His successes against the Crusaders — Death of Muktafi and accession of Caliph Mustanjid — The dispatch of Shirkuh to Egypt — Annexation of Eg}'pt — Rise of Saladin — Death of Mustanjid — Accession of Caliph Mustazii — Death of Nur ud-din Mahmud.



Whether it was by design or by accident, Christendom could not have chosen a better opportunity to hurl itself on Asia. Feudalism sapped the foundations of the mighty empire of the Seljukids. Alp Arslan had bestowed Asia Minor on his cousin Sulaiman; Malik Shah gave Syria to his brother Tutush, Both these princes acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sultan. But besides these two kingdoms, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine were parcelled among a number of vassal lords, whose sole duty to the suzerain was to render him military service. So long as the genius of Nizam ul-Mulk and the grand personality of Malik Shah pervaded the empire, the chiefs and princes rendered a willing homage to the sovereign. The moment they ceased to breathe, dissensions sprang on all sides; and peace and concord gave place to war and strife. First there was a struggle between Turkhan Khatun, on behalf of her son Mahmud, and Barkyaruk. Mahmud died shortly after, and Barkyaruk was thereupon acknowledged the over-lord of the Seljuks, and was invested by the Caliph Muktadi with the title of Sultan. Then followed a struggle between Barkyaruk and his uncle Tutush, who also aimed at supreme power. The defeat and death of Tutush did not bring peace to the distracted empire, for Barkyardk became involved in a war with his brother Mohammed, which lasted several years.

The stream of fugitives fleeing from the Crusaders poured into Bagdad. It was the month of Ramazan, the season of fasting. The tale of horror told by the hapless few who had escaped slaughter or slavery plunged the city into sorrow. The fast was forgotten; the people assembled in the cathedral mosque and wept. The Caliph Mustazhir b'lllah hurried off three eminent men of his court to Barkyaruk and Mohammed, who were encamped at Holwan, to entreat them to settle their quarrels and march against the common enemy. The appeal proved fruitless, for the brothers were soon again at each other's throat in consequence of the assassination of Barkyaruk's vizier. The historian pathetically adds, "the discord among the Sultans enabled the Franks to establish themselves in the countries of Islam."

On Barkyaruk's death in 498 a.h. (1104 a.c), Mohammed succeeded to the Sultanate, which he held for fourteen years. He is described as valiant, virtuous, hammed, just, and generous, and his charity to the orphan and indigent have been praised by the poets of the time. The celebrated philosopher and mystic Imam Abu Hamid al- Ghazzali was a contemporary of Sultan Mohammed, by whom he was held in high esteem. One of the Sultan's daughters, named Fatima, was married to the Caliph Muktadi. She is said to have been a woman of education and considerable political talent. She resided in the Dargah-i-Khatun, "the Hall of the Princess."

The political condition of the empire was unfavourable to any united action against the common foe. The various chiefs who held the appanages of Syria and Mesopotamia were divided by mutual jealousies. The prince of Aleppo (Rizwan, the son of Tutush) was a traitor; whilst the others, though willing enough to obey the Sultan, were more devoted to the advancement of their personal ambitions than to the furtherance of the national cause. The utter disorganisation of the Fatimide Caliphate, to which the Syrian sea-board and Palestine belonged at this period, rendered the assistance of the towns attacked by the enemy difficult or impossible.

The Fatimide Caliph (Mustaali) was wholly incompetent, while his Commander-in-Chief, who held the reins of government, instead of organising the military resources of the empire, and taking vigorous action, dallied in Cairo, or spent his time in intrigues against his rivals. First Once or twice at the instance of the Sultan Mohammed the chiefs sunk their differences and joined hands to oppose the invaders. At the beginning of 1113 a.c, Baldwin, the King of Jerusalem, raided into the seigniory of Damascus. Unable to oppose him single-handed, Toghtakin, the Lord of Damascus, invoked the assistance of Moudud of Mosul. In July 1113 the combined forces of the Lords of Mosul, Damascus, Sinjar, and Maridin marched into Palestine. In a battle near Tiberias, the Franks were routed with terrible loss, and a large number of them were, drowned in the lake and in the Jordan. In June 1119 they were again defeated at a place called al-Balat by ilgazi, the Lord of Maridin. Even the Egyptians won some successes on the sea-coast. But the Crusaders had the whole of Europe at their back; the reinforcements which poured in for them from all parts of Christendom, the assassination of Moudud, who was stabbed by a nihilist after the battle of Tiberias, and the division of the chiefs, all helped them to recover their ground.

The Crusaders went on thus extending their power, capturing city after city, devastating the country, slaughtering the inhabitants or reducing them to slavery. Sultan Mohammed died in 511 a.h., and was followed to the grave the year after by the Caliph Mustazhir. This Caliph had occupied the pontifical throne for twenty-five years, and was succeeded by his son, Abu Manstur al-Fazl, under the title of al-Mustarshid b'Illah.

The death of Sultan Mohammed was not without effect on the fortunes of the Moslems and Christians. He was succeeded in the over-lordship by his brother Sanjar, the last hero of a heroic race, and in the succession of his private dominions by his son Mahmud. Under Sultan Mahmud arose the first champion of Islam, who not only withstood the shock of the Franks, but drove them inch by inch from their possessions. Imad ud-din Zangi, the Sanguin of the Christian writers, was the son of one of the principal chiefs of Sultan Malik Shah, named Ak- Sunkar (Kasim ud-Dowla), who played an important part in the history of the troublous times that followed the death of his great master. Ak-Sunkar was an able soldier and a wise administrator. Perfect justice reigned throughout his seigniory, the markets were moderate, the roads absolutely safe, and order prevailed in all parts. His policy of making a district pay for a misdeed occurring within its boundaries is not unknown in modern times.

Ak-Sunkar had died leaving his son Zangi, a lad of fourteen, to succeed him in the seigniory, but his vassals and retainers rallied round the youth and upheld him in his position, and he himself showed early the signs of an indomitable will, great energy of character, and administrative and military capacity of a high order. In 516 a.h., Zangi obtained from Sultan Mahmud the city of Wasit as an appanage, and the post of Commissary (Shahna) at Bussorah. Four years later the government of Mosul and Upper Mesopotamia was conferred on him, with the title of Atabek ("Prince Tutor"), and he was confirmed in Zangi this dignity by the letters patent of the Caliph. Imad ud-Din Zangi became the founder of the long line of the Atabeks of Mosul. Ibn ul-Athir describes most graphically the state of weakness among the Mussulmans at this epoch, and the strength of the Polytheists. "Their army was numerous, their violence and depredations increased every day, and they committed every enormity without any fear of punishment. Their territories extended from Maridin in Upper Mesopotamia to the city of Aarish on the borders of Egypt; Harran and Rakka were subjected to the greatest humiliations; their devastations were carried to the very gates of Nisibin; they cut all the roads to Damascus save the desert route past Rahba; they levied tribute on towns without number, and blackmailed Aleppo to the half of its revenue, even to the profits of the mill that stands by the Garden Gate. They spared no one, neither those who believed in the unity of God nor those who denied it."

Zangi set himself vigorously to the task of improving the government and organising his army; and before long he was able to take the field in sufficient force to drive the Franks out of Mesopotamia. The conquest of Membij (ancient Bambace) and Bizaa or Buzaa made him undisputed ruler of the vast principality of Mosul. In 1128 A.C, on the invitation of the people of Aleppo, who suffered terribly from the depredations of the Crusaders he took possession of their city. Hamah followed the example of Aleppo. The following year zangi routed the Crusaders under the walls of al-Asarib, and captured the castle after a stout resistance. A short truce between Joscelin, the Count of Edessa, "the greatest demon of them all,"- enabled Zangi to take part in the inevitable civil war which broke out on the death of Sultan Sultan Mahmud.

Mahmud was succeeded by his brother Masud, but the succession was disputed by another brother named Seljuk Shah. After a short struggle, they made up their quarrel and marched against their uncle Sanjar, but were defeated at Damarj. Sanjar treated the rebels with kindness and confirmed them in their possessions. War then broke out between the Caliph Mustarshid and Masud. Mustarshid was taken prisoner, and whilst in Masud's camp was assassinated by the emissaries of the nihilists. Mustarshid was succeeded by his son, Abu Jaafar Mansur, under the title of Rashid b'Illah. Rashid, however, did not occupy the pontifical throne beyond a few months. Differences between him and Sultan Masud compelled him to leave Bagdad for Mosul. Masud thereupon assembled the jurists and Kazis, and after reciting Rashid's breach of faith, induced them to depose him. Upon Rashid's deposition, Abu Abdullah son of Mustazhir, was elected Caliph under the title of al-Muktafi li’amr Illah. As the power of the Seljuk sovereigns declined, Muktafi's influence proportionately increased in Irak and Chaldaea, and in the end he succeeded in recovering his temporal authority in the home provinces.

Atabek Zangi did not long concern himself with the troubles in the East. His great work lay in Syria. The Crusaders were again in a ferment; they had received large reinforcements from Europe, and had been joined by a Greek contingent under the personal command of the Emperor John Comnenus, They captured Buzaa, put to the sword all the male inhabitants, and carried into captivity the women and children. They then marched upon Shaizar (Caesarea), a day's journey from Hamah. The castle of Shaizar, the birthplace of Osama, (Ameer Almuwayyid ud-Dowla), one of the heroes of the early Crusades, was almost impregnable. Built on a rock, it could be approached only by a horse-path cut in the side of the mountains. This narrow road first spanned the dashing Orontes, then tunnelled through the rock, and finally ran across a deep ditch over a wooden bridge. The bridge once cut, nobody could approach the castle. Since the beginning of the fifth century of the Hegira, this place had belonged to the Banu Munkiz (Munkidh), of the Arab tribe of Kinana, and they were the hereditary lords of the fortress and the surrounding district. Its strong situation, in close proximity to Hamah as well as the crusading centres, made it important to both the Franks and the Saracens. No sooner, therefore, did Zangi receive the appeal of Abu Asakir Sultan, who was at that time the Lord of Shaizar, than he hastened to the relief of the place. On the approach of the Atabek, the Franks and Greeks raised the siege and retreated, the Greeks returning to their country. Zangi lost no time in pursuing his advantage. The fortress of Arka, situated in the territories of the Count of Tripoli, was carried by assault and rased to the ground. Baalbek was captured and placed under the command of Najm ud-din Ayub, the father of the celebrated Saladin. So long, however, as the principality of Damascus was held by an independent chief, it was impossible for the Atabek to drive the Franks out of Syria.

In 534 A.H. he routed the Franks in the neighbourhood of Barin (Mont- Ferrand), which fell into his hands. It was one of the strongest fortresses held by the Crusaders, and formed the centre of their marauding excursions into the countries between Hamah and Aleppo. His greatest conquest, however, was achieved in the year 539 a.h., when he captured Edessa (Roha), which belonged to Joscelin II, "their hero and demon." "It was in truth the conquest of conquests" says Ibn Athir. "Roha was regarded by the Christians as one of the noblest of cities, for it formed one of their bishoprics, the most eminent of which was that of Jerusalem; after Jerusalem came in order Antioch, Rome, Constantinople, and Roha. It was in effect the eye of Mesopotamia. Its possession had enabled them to reduce the surrounding districts, and they possessed strong fortresses along the line of march."  On his approach he offered the inhabitants safety of life and property, but they rejected his terms with indignation. The city was carried by assault. He had thought of inflicting a terrible punishment in revenge for all that had taken place in Jerusalem and at Antioch, but his humanity overbore his anger. Save and except the fighting men and the monks and priests, who were found exciting the Frankish soldiery, none were killed. The men, women, and children who had fallen into the hands of the victors were set at liberty, and their goods and chattels were restored to them out of free grace.

Leaving a strong garrison, the Atabek pursued his victorious course. He reduced in succession Seruj, al- Bira, and the other castles held by the Crusaders. Whilst engaged in the siege of Kalat-Jabir, Imad ud-din was murdered in his sleep by some of his own Mamlukes, who were instigated to the foul deed by his enemies. Thus perished one of the greatest heroes of the age!

Generous, and wise, the Atabek Zangi was a father to his people. When he assumed the government of Mesopotamia, considerable portion of that province, as well as of Syria, was lying uncultivated; the peasantry and citizens were ruined; and owing to the depredations of the Franks, commerce had ceased. Zangi devoted immense pains to revive agriculture and to restore the country to prosperity; the tillers of the soil flocked back to their lands; the ruined cities were rebuilt and re-embellished; disorders and brigandage were repressed with severity, and as the Frankish marauders and cut-throats were driven back towards the littoral, commerce resumed life. He was scrupulously guardful of women's safety, and any insult or outrage to them brought down the severest punishment. His charity was lavish. Every Friday he gave away "openly " a hundred dinars in alms; on other days he distributed large sums in secret by the hands of a confidential servant. He was a faithful friend and considerate master; in camp, a strict disciplinarian. "His administration — in the abundance of its resources, in the prompt dispatch of business, in its numerous personnel — compared with that of the Sultan." He was a friend of the learned, and his vizier Jamal ud-din, surnamed al-Jawwad ("the Bountiful"), supported him as zealously in the patronage of learning as in the government of the kingdom. Jamal ud-din held the office of Inspector-General (Mushrif) of the principality and President of the Council of State. It was Zangi who said of himself that he loved the back of a saddle better than a silken bed, the din of battle better than the most enchanting music, the clash of arms more than the blandishments of a sweetheart.

The great Atabek left four sons, Saif ud-din Ghazi the eldest, who succeeded to the principality of Mosul; Nur ud-din Mahmud, on whom devolved the "heritage of championship," with the principality of Aleppo for his appanage; Kutb ud-din Moudud and Nusrat ud-din Ameer Miran. Both Saif ud-din and Nur ud-din were trained in their father's camp. But the latter was not merely a soldier; he was a jurist and a scholar as well, and a liberal patron of arts and learning. He founded colleges and hospitals in every part of his kingdom, and was the munificent patron of scholars and savants, who flocked to his court. He was the first to establish a regular High Court of Justice, called the Dar ul-aadl. "The true praise of kings," says Gibbon, with his usual acumen, "is after their death and from the mouth of their enemies." William, Bishop of Tyre, whilst calling him the greatest persecutor of the Christian name and faith, is forced to admit that he was "a just ruler, energetic, prudent, and religious, according to the traditions of his people." The prosperity of his people was the sole object and aim of his life, and his subjects adored him for his justice, his clemency, and his moderation.

Soon after Nur ud-din's accession to the throne of Aleppo, the Christians of Edessa, assisted by a large body of Franks under Joscelin, treacherously rose against the garrison, and massacred the soldiers and Moslem inhabitants in the city. Nur ud-din swooped down upon the devoted town, which this time felt the full weight of a justly indignant sovereign. The soldiers of Joscelin, and the traitors who had assisted him, were put to the sword. The Armenians, who were the chief promoters of treasonable communications with the Crusaders, were expelled, and the walls were pulled down.

The double fall of Edessa created a great commotion in Europe, and St. Bernard of Clairvaux preached a fresh crusade against Islam. In 1147 a.c. Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII. undertook this "Holy War" to support "the failing fortunes of the Latins." Contemporaneous history records that they led over 900,000 men under their united banners for the help of their brethren in Syria and Palestine. Louis VII. was accompanied by his wife, Eleanor of Guienne, who afterwards married Henry II of England, and her example attracted a number of women to join the ill-fated expedition. A considerable troop of women, armed with spears and shields, rode among the Germans. Nor were the French behind in this mixture of sexes, which naturally led to much depravity of morals.

The fate of the two armies is well known. Both sovereigns suffered disastrous defeats on their march towards Syria; a large portion of Conrad's army was annihilated in the neighbourhood of Laodicea, whilst the forces of Louis, whose route lay along the sea-coast, were overwhelmed and destroyed en route by the Seljuks on the heights of the Cadmus, now called Baba-Dagh. When Louis arrived in the principality of Antioch, which was held by Raymond of Poictiers, an uncle of Eleanor, he had lost three-fourths of his army. The voluptuous city contained at this time within its walls the Countess of Toulouse, the Countess of Blois, Sybille of Flanders, Maurille, countess of Roussy, Talcquery, duchess of Bouillon, and many other ladies celebrated for their birth or their beauty. But the queen of them all was Eleanor of Guienne. In Antioch the warriors of the Cross abandoned themselves to unbridled, whilst the fetes of Raymond degenerated into orgies, and Queen of Eleanor scandalised everybody by her freedom of manners. After the Crusaders had sufficiently refreshed themselves in Antioch, their united forces marched upon Damascus, which they held in leaguer for several months; but the approach of Saif ud-din Ghazi and Nur ud-din Mahmud to the relief of the city, compelled them to raise the siege and hurriedly to retreat towards Palestine. Conrad and Louis then left for Europe, and thus ended the Second Crusade.

Nur ud-din Mahmud now commenced his career of conquest against the Franks. He captured the castle of al-Aareima, one of their strongest fortresses on the borders of Syria, and a few months later inflicted on them a heavy defeat at Zaghra, in the neighbourhood of Antioch. In a battle under the walls of Anneb (ancient Nepa), the proud Raymond of Poictiers, prince of Antioch, was killed, and his troops routed with great slaughter. He left a young son named Bohemond (called by the Arabs, Beemend), under the guardianship of his wife. This lady did not, however, remain long, a widow, but the fate of her second husband was almost as disastrous as that of Raymond, for he fell into Nur ud-Din's hands in a skirmish, in which the Franks were again discomfited.

In 544 A.H. he reduced the important fortress of Apameas (Afamieh), about a day's journey from Hamah. Two years later Nur ud-din suffered a defeat at the hands of Joscelin II. This reverse was soon compensated by the capture of Joscelin, who was regarded by the Saracens as a splendid success; "for," says Ibn ul-Athir, "Joscelin was one of the most bigoted demons among the Franks, and surpassed all others in his hatred against the Moslems. Whenever the Franks undertook any expedition they confided the command to him, as they appreciated his bravery, his prudence, his animosity against Islam, and the hardness of his heart against its professors." The capture of this redoubtable foe facilitated the task of Nur ud-din, and he rapidly reduced a number of cities and fortresses belonging to the Crusaders, such as Tell-Basher, Ain-Tab, Nahr ul-jazz, Burj ur-Rassas, etc.

Another battle at Duluk, which was equally disastrous to the Franks, led to the subjugation of the greater part of the principality of Antioch. Sultan Masud died in 547 a.h. (1152-53 a.c), and was succeeded on the throne by Malik Shah, a son of his brother. He was the last of his family who was recognised as a Sultan.

But so long as Damascus was held by an independent prince, whose fidelity was by no means certain, Nur ud- din, like his father, experienced great difficulties in his operations against the Crusaders. These, on their side, emboldened by the successiul capture or Ascalon on the sea-coast, resumed their design of conquering the capital of Syria. In this crisis, the inhabitants of of Damascus appealed to Nur ud-din, who immediately responded to their call. The prince- of that city received for his appanage the city of Emessa, and the son of the great Zangi was installed as the sovereign of Damascus, amidst the acclamation of the citizens.

This peaceful but important conquest obtained for him from the Caliph the title of al-Malik al-AAdil ("the Just King"), which he fully deserved. There was a short peace between Nur ud-din and the Crusaders, which enabled him to repair the havoc caused by the earthquake that about this time afflicted Syria and ruined so many monuments of antiquity.

The Caliph Muktafi died in the year 1160, and was succeeded in the pontificate by his son Abu'l Muzzaffar Yusuf, under the title of al-Mustanjid b'Illah.

Six years later Nur ud-din sent the memorable expedition to Egypt, which bore such important results for both Franks and Saracens. The Fatimide dynasty was tottering to its fall. The last Caliph of this race, al- Aazid li'din Illah, was a confirmed valetudinarian(chronic patient), and all the power of the state rested in the hands of his minister, Shawer as-Saadi. Ousted from office by a cabal, Shawer betook himself to the Prince of Damascus, and sought his assistance, promising in return the support of the Egyptian troops against the Crusaders, cession of certain territories, and a large subsidy. After some hesitation, Nur ud-din acceded to his prayer, and sent him back to Egypt with an escort under the command of Asad ud-din Shirkuh ("the Lion of the Mountain"), the uncle of the famous Saladin. No sooner did the traitor recover his power, than, joining hands with the Franks, he called upon Shirkuh to evacuate Egypt. The small force under Shirkuh's command offered a stout resistance to the allies at Bilbais or Bilbis (ancient Pelusium), but in the end was forced to evacuate the place with all the honours of war.

In the Ramazan of 559 a.h., Nur ud-din was attacked united armies of the Franks and Greeks. The battle, which took place under the walls of Harim, was one of the severest of the Crusades; the Franks suffered a terrible defeat, and most of their chieftains, such as Bohemond, Prince of Antioch, Raymond of Tripoli, Josceiin III., and the Greek general, Duke of Calamar, were taken prisoners. As the fruit of this splendid victory, Nur ud-din captured Harim, Paneas, al-Monetara (al-Munaitira), etc.

In 562 a.h. Shirkuh again entered Egypt, and again Shawer called in the Franks to his assistance. Amaury, occupied the throne of Jerusalem, hoping to
obtain possession of the country on his own account, hurried off an army to the help of Shawer. The marches and counter-marches of Shirkuh, and his final victory at Babain, over the allies, "show," says Michaud, "millitary capacity of the highest order." " Never has history," remarks Ibn ul-Athir enthusiastically, "recorded a more extraordinary event than the rout of the Egyptain forces and the Franks of the littoral, by only a thousand cavaliers." After this brilliant success, Shirkuh captured Alexandria and installed himself there. Subsequently a peace was concluded between the Egyptians and the Franks on one side, and the lieutenant of Nur ud-din on the other, by which Amaury agreed to withdraw his troops from Egypt, and to refrain from all interference in its affairs; Shirkuh, to evacuate Alexandria on payment of 50,000 pieces of gold, and to return to Syria. But the Franks, by a secret convention with Shawer, obtained the right of keeping a resident at Cairo, of occupying some of the cities by their troops, and receiving an annual subsidy of 100,000 pieces of gold. This was in direct breach of the terms of peace with Shirkuh. At last, the conduct of the Crusaders who occupied Cairo and other places became so overbearing, and their tyranny so great, that al-Aazid himself appealed for help to Nur ud-din. In response, Nur ud-din again sent Shirkuh to Egypt with a sufficiently large force to make head against the Franks. On Shirkuh's approach the Crusaders hurriedly left the country with all their spoil. On the 8th of January, 1169 a.c, Shirkuh re-entered Cairo, and was welcomed by the people and the Fatimide Caliph as the saviour of Egypt. Shawer was put to death by his enraged sovereign, and Shirkuh was appointed in his place as prime minister and commander-in-chief. Shirkuh, dying two months after, was succeeded in the office by his famous nephew, Salah ud-din Yusuf (the Saladin), with the title of al- Malik un-Nasir. Whilst purporting to hold the vizierate of al-Aazid, Saladin regarded himself in reality the lieutenant of Nur ud-din, who always addressed him as al-Ameer, Isphah Salar (Ameer, General-ui-Chief).

Saladin won all hearts by his liberality and justice. Al-Aazid was dying, and during his mortal illness, Saladin, who was a strict Hanafi, quietly restored in Egypt the spiritual authority of the Abbasside Caliph. In the year 1170 a.c, the Caliph al-Mustanjid died, and was succeeded by his son, Abu Mohammed Hassan, under the title of al-Mustazii bi’amr Illah.

Mustanjid is described by Ibn ul-Athir as the best of Caliphs in his conduct towards his subjects. He ruled them with justice and treated them with generosity; abolished all oppressive and illegal imposts within his territories, and maintained order and peace with firmness.

In 565 a.h.(1170 A.C.) died Kutb ud-din Moudud, the third son of Zangi, and was succeeded in the Atabekship by Saif ud-din Ghazi II. Under Saif ud-din Ghazi II the affairs of Mosul fell into disorder. Nur ud-din hastened to his nephew's dominions, re-organised the state, and replaced Saif ud-din on the throne of Mosul, keeping the control of the army in his own hands.

In the Moharram 567 a.h. died the last of the Fatimides, and Egypt was restored to the spiritual control of the Caliphs of Bagdad. From this time Saladin became the virtual master of Egypt, ruling until the death of Nur ud-din Mahmud as his viceroy and lieutenant, and afterwards as an independent sovereign. He was then about thirty-five years of age. His father, Najm ud-din Ayub, son of Shadi, was, like his brother Shirkuh, a trusted officer of Zangi, as well as of Nur ud-din Mahmud. Saladin himself held various offices under this monarch before he proceeded to Egypt with his uncle. He is described by his biographer as a chivalrous, just, generous, and high-minded sovereign; most tender-hearted, pious in his life, never indulging in anything reprehensible or unseemly, and devoted to the promotion of his people's welfare.

In 569 a.h. he sent, with the sanction of his suzerain, his brother Turan Shah to reduce Yemen, which was successfully accomplished. And the death of Nur ud-din soon after, enabled Saladin to consolidate his independent authority over the whole of Egypt, part of Nubia, and Hijaz and Yemen. Nur ud-din left an only son, named Ismail (al-Malik us-Saleh), barely eleven years of age at the time.


No comments:

Post a Comment