THE SARACENS OF SPAIN — THE OMMEYADES
ABDUR RAHMAN I. — HISHAM — HAKAM — ABDUR RAHMAN II —
MUHAMMAD — MUNZIR — ABDULLAH
Abdur Rahman lands in Spain — The battle of Masarah
— Revolt of the nobles — Frankish intrigues — Invasion of Charlemagne — Battle
of Roncesvalles — Abdur Rahman's death — His character — Accession of Hisham I.
— His character — His just and mild rule — War with the Franks and Christian
tribes — Maliki dOtrines introduced — Hishani's death — Accession of Hakam I. —
His character — His unpopularity among the Fakfhs — The revolt in Cordova —
Suppressed — Rioters expelled — Toledo — Death of Hakam — Accession of Abdur
Rahman II — His prosperous Reign — The raids of the Christian tribesmen — Their
submission — The appearance of the Normans — Christian agitation in Cordova —
Abdur Rahman's death — Accession of Mohammed — His character — Christian mutiny
stamped out — Fresh inroad of the Normans —Their defeat — Rebellions — Death of
Mohammed — Accession of Munzir — His death — Succeeded by Abdullah —His
disturbed reign— His death.
Six
years had not elapsed after the battle of Zab when a new Ommeyyad kingdom sprang
up in the West. Among the members of the proscribed family who eluded the
vengeance of Saffah was a grandson of Hisham named Abdur Rahman. His flight
from Syria to Mauritania, his hairbreadth escapes, his sojourn among the
hospitable Berbers, makes a romantic story full at times of a thrilling pathos.
Whilst living with the Berbers he could not resist casting longing eyes on the
beautiful country across the straits which once belonged to his ancestors.
Determined to make a bid for its sovereignty he sent a faithful emissary to his
clansmen and clients to enlist their support in his struggle for power. His
message was received with enthusiasm, and he was invited to appear in person.
In the month of September 755 C.E. this youthful prince of an unhappy race landed
on the shores of Spain. The Yemenites, smarting under recent wrongs inflicted
on them by dominant Modhar, flocked to his standard, and he was soon able to
meet in open field the governor Yusuf, who had hitherto ruled the Peninsula
virtually as an independent sovereign, although owning a nominal allegiance to
the Abbasside Caliph. The battle which gave Abdur Rahman the throne was fought
at Masarah, and the battle proved a second Marj Rahat. Yusuf was defeated with
heavy loss, and was forced to submit. In 141 a.h. he attempted an unsuccessful
rising in which he lost his life.
The
proscribed fugitive, the homeless wanderer, had now attained the summit of his
ambition. He was the master of a kingdom; but he was not allowed to enjoy
peaceably what he had gained by his ability and valour. The Arab nobility, as
usual impatient of control, hated a personal rule. Their dislike was shared by
the Berbers. Both these races, with their republican proclivities, wished to
dissolve Saracenic Spain into petty semi-oligarchical states, at liberty to war
with each other when they listed, and to unite, when the danger appeared
pressing, against the Christian raiders of the north. Owing to this feeling
Abdur Rahman's endeavour to introduce order, cohesion, and homogeneity was
opposed by the nobles, who constantly rose against him.
The
Arab rebels, like the Christians of Leon, Catalonia, and Navarre, received
support from Pepin, and, after him, from his son Charlemagne. It was the policy
of both these rulers to favour by all the means in their power the attempts of
the Saracen governors to make themselves independent of the sovereign of
Cordova. Often their revolts were directly instigated by the intrigues by the
Frankish kings; but Abdur Rahman met these risings with unequalled energy.
Forced
to fight unceasingly for his kingdom and in the interests of peace and order,
he adopted a policy which may not commend itself to us for its humanity or
straightforwardness, but it was suited to the circumstances under which he was
placed. It was the struggle of feudalism with monarchy. Happily for Abdur
Rahman there was no union among the Arab chiefs; they felt in a confused way
that to vanquish the Ameer a confederation of the whole body of the nobility
was necessary, but they did not know how to act together. In the course of a
few years the Omayyad cleared his path of all enemies; the rebellions were
stamped out, the Arab noblesses were crushed, and the authority of the Ameer
was supreme in the land. But his power rested upon his mercenaries; he was no
more the popular sovereign, the young hero of his first arrival; he could no
more wander about the streets of Cordova without a guard. He had now to
surround himself with numerous retainers as a protection from the vengeance of
those whom he had defeated or conquered.
Whilst
Abdur Rahman was engaged with his insurgent nobles, the Moslems of Spain were
terribly harried by their Christian neighbours. Their cities were burnt, their
homes and fields devastated, and they themselves were either massacred or
carried away into hopeless captivity and servitude. During this period of
anarchy and turmoil the Saracens lost a large portion of their northern
possessions. The Emperor of the Franks, Charlemagne, who wanted nothing better
than to extend his authority, believed the occasion favourable for rendering
himself master of Spain. Collecting an army he crossed the mountains, sweeping
everything before him until he arrived under the walls of Saragossa, which was
defended by Hussain bin Yahya al-Ansari. Here he sustained a disastrous
repulse. Suspecting treachery he seized the person of the rebel chief, and
retreated towards his country. Whilst crossing the Pyrenees he was attacked in
the defiles of Roncesvalles by Matruh and Aishun the sons of Sulaiman; his
rear-guard was cut to pieces, and some of his best paladins were condemned to
death. After this a peace was concluded between Charlemagne and Abdur Rahman.
The
authority of the Omayyad was now firmly established in the land of his
adoption; and although his reign continued to be disturbed by risings and
conspiracies, even in his own family, it was uniformly successful. He died in
the year 173 A.H.(788 A.C.), after a reign of thirty-three years. Although in
resisting the attempts against his authority he often employed harsh and cruel
measures, he was naturally of a mild disposition, and fond of arts and letters.
Ibn ul-Athir describes him as a tall, thin man with sharp aquiline features,
learned, accomplished, and a poet, endowed with indefatigable energy, keenness
of intellect and foresight, devoted to work, generous and liberal. In industry
and administrative ability he was compared to Mansur. He embellished Cordova
with magnificent buildings and parks, and commenced a grand mosque, which he did not
have to finish. Although in the year 156 A.H. he had discontinued the Khutba in
the name of the Abbasside Mansur, he never assumed the title of Commander of
the Faithful (Ameer ul-Momineen), "out
of respect for the seat of the Caliphate, which was still the abode of Islam
and the meeting-place of the Arabian tribes," and was content with the
simple title of Ameer (ruler or sovereign).
Abdur Rahman was succeeded by his son Hisham. He was a just, mild, and generous ruler, "truly religious, and a model of virtue." "In fact he is likened in character to Omar bin Abdul Aziz." Dressed in simple garb he was wont to perambulate the streets of Cordova, mix with the people, and acquaint himself with their complaints and grievances; he frequently watched by the bedside of the sick and lowly, visited the poor in their own houses, and listened with tender solicitude to the tales of their cares and burdens. Often he would sally forth at night in rain and snow on errands of mercy, carrying food with his own hand to some poor invalid. His charity was unbounded; and he would distribute sums among the indigent pious who, undeterred by the inclemency of the weather, came to offer their orisons in the mosques. In him the persecuted and poverty-stricken never failed to find a protector. At the same time his administration was firm and vigorous; disorders were repressed with a strong hand, and no misdeed was allowed to pass unpunished. The people prospered under the rule of this virtuous monarch. He restored the great bridge of as-Samh, completed the great mosque begun by his father, and embellished the cities of his kingdom with fine public buildings.
But neither the firmness of his rule nor the mildness of his character withheld the ameers from revolting. Soon after his accession he had to deal with a rebellion on the part of his own brothers. After reducing them to submission he marched towards the Ebro to quell the insurrection of Matruh, the son of Sulaiman, who had invited Charlemagne into Spain. The rebel was killed, and Saragossa and Barcelona again acknowledged the authority of the Ommeyade sovereign.
The restoration of peace within his own dominions enabled Hisham to turn his attention towards the north. The repression of the Christian frontier tribes had become a matter of vital necessity, for their raids were incessant and disastrous. They burnt, they massacred, they devastated wherever they went. It was then, as now, a conflict between civilisation and barbarism. Unfortunately the former was hampered by frequent intestine troubles, and the latter was helped by continuous aid from outside. Hisham considered it necessary to teach a lesson to the Franks, whose rulers had hitherto pursued a most treacherous policy towards Saracenic land and had for some time past fomented all the disorders within the Peninsula. With this object he sent forward two armies — one, marching through Catalonia, entered France, overran Cerdagne, recaptured Narbonne and several other places, and inflicted, on the banks of the river Orbiena, at a place called Villedaigne, a terrible defeat on the Count of Toulouse, who held guard in Septimania for the son of Charlemagne. The other corps was equally successful; the Galician tribesmen, under their chief Bermudah were routed with great slaughter, and compelled to sue for peace.
Hisham entertained a profound respect for Imam Malik, the Medinite doctor, and the founder of one Maliki of the four principal Sunni schools of law, and did his doctrines utmost to introduce the Maliki system into the Iberian Peninsula. From this time it became practically the state religion of Andalusia. The fakihs, who combined the functions of theologians and jurists, and whom the pious king held in great consideration, acquired in this reign great influence and authority among the people and in the state.
Hisham died in 180 a.h., and was succeeded by his son Hakam, surnamed al-Muntassir (the conqueror). Ibn ul-Athir describes him as wise, courageous, and accomplished, and the first among Andalusian sovereigns who surrounded himself with pomp and pageantry. His reign, nevertheless, was continually disturbed by internal troubles. He was by temperament unfitted for the life of an anchorite as the divines wished. His nature was gay and expansive, and richly organised for the enjoyment of existence. He was fond of hunting, and not satisfied with the society of lawyers and theologians, loved to surround himself with poets, musicians, and scholars.
All this tended to make him unpopular among the fakihs. But there were other and stronger reasons for their discontent. Owing to the generous policy of Hisham, the fakihs had become a power in the land. Hakam, on the other hand, although he never failed to treat them with deference, or to give effect to the decisions of the constituted courts of justice, excluded them from all interference in affairs of state. Frustrated thus in their hopes of power, and "full of clerical pride", they became demagogues. They denounced him from the pulpits as impious and irreligious, and prayed for the salvation of his soul. They tried in this way to inflame the bigotry of the Moslem Spaniards, among whom their influence was unbounded. The bulk of the population throughout the Peninsula consisted of converts to Islam. In the principal cities, like Cordova, Seville, Toledo, and Madrid, the converts belonged to the highest families. Marriages between Arabs and Berbers on one side and the Spaniards, both Moslem and Christian, especially in the Northern provinces, were not uncommon. The issue of such unions were called Muwallad or born. The pure-bred Arab professed to look down on the Biladiun and the Muwallad, treated them with hauteur, and, as in Persia under the Ommeyades, attempted to exclude them from the high offices of state. The consequence was that he was hated in return by both. The Moslem Spaniards rose time after time in angry revolt against the Arab dominancy. Fakihs instead of pacifying these bitter racial differences, made themselves the partisans of the natives, and encouraged them in their rebellious attitude towards the sovereign.
Whilst these evils were breeding mischief within Andalusia, the two uncles of Hakam, Sulaiman and Abdullah, whose rebellion had been pardoned by Hisham, again took to arms. Abdullah proceeded to Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle to solicit the assistance of that ambitious and intriguing monarch. With the help of the Franks, Abdullah seized Toledo, and Sulaiman obtained possession of Valencia. At the same time the sons of Charlemagne, Louis and Charles, burst into the northern provinces with fire and sword; and Alfonso, the Galician chief, raided into Aragon. In these critical circumstances Hakam displayed the greatest energy. Leaving a small portion of his army to watch Toledo, he marched towards the Galicians, defeated them in a pitched battle, and ravaged their country; then turning towards the Franks, he drove them headlong across the Ebro and beyond the Pyrenees. After these successes, he returned to Toledo. Sulaiman was killed in a battle; Abdullah submitted and was pardoned. Whilst Hakam was thus occupied, the Franks seized Barcelona. The loss of this valuable and important town was primarily due to the treachery of its governor, who, in the hope of being allowed by Charlemagne to hold it as an independent king, had invited the Franks to his assistance.
Charlemagne thus obtained a strong foothold in Spain. His Spanish possessions were divided into two Marches — the March of Septimania, which embraced Catalonia, with Barcelona for its capital; and the March of Gascony, comprising the Frankish cities of Navarre and Aragon. In 809 a.c, however, the March of Gascony fell again into the power of Hakam. In 805 a.c, riots broke out in Cordova, which were leniently dealt with. In the following year, whilst the king was engaged in quelling the rebellion of the people of Merida, the Cordovans rose again. Hakam hastened back to the capital, and this time repressed with the utmost severity. In 807 A.c. Tortosa was besieged by Ludwig, son of Charlemagne, but was relieved by Hakam's son Abdur Rahman; and in 811 he himself undertook an expedition against the Franks, in which he was eminently successful.
The Toledans had never forgotten that their city was once the capital of Spain, and the memory of their past grandeur rankled in their hearts and increased their animosity against the Arabs. Proud of their wealth, their numbers, and their riches, they refused to obey the orders of the sovereign or to receive as their governor anyone who was not acceptable to them. The first rebellion (in 181 a.h.) was easily suppressed. Amrus bin Yusuf, one of Hakam's generals (kaid), who held command at Talavera, himself a Muwallad, was deputed to restore order. He won over some of the principal inhabitants and with their help induced the people to acknowledge the authority of the king. Ten years later they revolted again. Thoroughly sick of their unruliness, and failing to bring them to reason by conciliatory means, he reappointed Amrus, who now held command in the upper marches, as governor of the city. His appointment was accepted by the Toledans, as they believed him to be inimical to the king. They went so far as to allow him to build a fortified residence within the city. Having succeeded so far, he one day inveigled the principal citizens into the castle and put them to death. Deprived thus by violence and treachery of its chief notables, the turbulent city maintained a submissive attitude for the next seven years.
In the year 198 a.h. the turbulence of the Cordovans reached its limit. One day in the mosque, a common man had the insolence to insult and menace the sovereign to his face. The well-deserved punishment led to a furious rising in the suburb of Cordova, called Shekundah. The mob actually besieged the king in his palace. The peril was extreme, but Hakam met the anger of the populace with his usual energy and presence of mind. The rioters were beaten back, their principal leaders were either killed or executed, and the rest of them expelled. Some crossed the straits and settled near Fez; the bulk went to Alexandria, and thence to Crete which they conquered and held until it was re-taken by the Greeks. In 816 A.C. a peace was concluded between the son and successor of Charlemagne and Hakam, which, however, did not last long.
Abdur Rahman-II
Hakam died in 206 A.H. after a reign of twenty-six years, and was succeeded by his son, Abdur Rahman, surnamed al-Ausat (the middle). "His reign", says the Arab historian, "was one of peace and splendour; the people were prosperous and the revenues ample." He was devoted to arts and letters, and loved the society of men of talent and learning. At this instance the famous musician Ziryab came from Bagdad to Cordova, and became at once the favourite of the palace and the city. The love of music, which became afterwards a national characteristic of the Spanish Arabs, began at this time to develop itself among all classes of the people. In the brilliancy and superb magnificence of his court, Abdur Rahman surpassed all his predecessors. The splendid culture, the polished chivalry, the delicacy, grace, and elegance of Arab manners, which European chivalry afterwards attempted to imitate, date from this epoch according to Sedillote.
Soon after Abdur Rahman's accession to the throne of the chief of Leon Alfonso II made an incursion into a district Medina-Salim (Medinaceli) of Aragon, and his example was followed by the other tribesmen, who raided into the Saracenic territories. A strong force was dispatched for their punishment; they were thoroughly beaten, their towers and fortresses were razed to the ground, and Leon itself was destroyed. On their submission they were required to pay a heavy fine above the fixed tribute, to release their Moslem prisoners, and to give hostages for future good behaviour.
The Franks had also attempted to profit by the occasion; they had entered with fire and sword those parts of Catalonia which were under Arab sway. They suffered a disastrous defeat, and were driven across the frontier.
It was in this reign that the Northmen or Normans appeared on the coasts of Spain. They plundered several places within reach of the sea, but fled on the approach of a fleet and army sent by the King of Cordova. The Christians of Merida, instigated by Louis le Debonnaire of France, several times rose in arms, but were easily reduced to subjection. A fresh revolt in Toledo, in which the Jews and Christians took part, was finally crushed in 837 a.c.
Towards the close of Abdur Rahman's reign, the fanatical section of the Cordovan Christians assumed a dangerous and menacing attitude, which virtually amounted to a revolt. The bulk of the Christian community, and that the most enlightened in the capital and throughout the country, had no cause of complaint under the Arab regime. On the contrary, they had every reason to be satisfied with their lot; they were not persecuted or troubled for their faith, they were permitted the free and unrestricted exercise of their religion and the full enjoyment of their law. Many of them served in the army; the highest and most lucrative civil and military posts were open to them equally with the ruling classes; they were employed largely in missions to foreign states; whilst the rich Arab magnates utilised the talents of Christian stewards in the management of their estates. Fascinated by the brilliancy of the Saracenic literature, the cultivated classes, and especially men of taste, spoke and wrote in the language of the conquerors. And with the language of the Saracens they adopted Arab manners and customs. These Arabicised Christians were hated by their fanatical brethren, who denounced them as irreligious, and the priests fanned the flame of discontent jounced and increased the bitterness of the bigoted sections.
"They had," says a Christian writer of our times, "an instinctive hatred for the Mussulmans, and entertained thoroughly false ideas about Islam. Living in the midst of the Arabs, nothing was more easy than to instruct themselves on this subject; but they refused obstinately to go to the sources which could be found at their doors, and were satisfied with believing and repeating all the absurd fables which they retailed about the Prophet of Mecca." But it was not the religion of the Arabs only that they hated; they had a strong aversion to the frank gaiety and refinement of manners of the ruling race. The hatred bred by these causes was deepened by some little affronts by the gamins and roughs of Cordova, such as those of modern cities are apt to show to strangers or outsiders. Under Abdur Rahman II their religious zeal grew into agitation.
"In the sierras and mountains they became bandits or partisans. In the capital they could only become martyrs." They publicly cursed the Islamic Prophet and his religion; they entered the mosques at prayer time and repeated their maledictions; they tampered with the religion of the youth of both sexes, and frequently. They abducted them from their homes. Blasphemy of the Islamic Prophet is a capital offence under the Islamic conduct or State law, as calculated to lead to riot and bloodshed. Offenders were brought before the Kadhi; in his court they repeated their maledictions. They were condemned to death. When taken to the Council of state for confirmation of the sentence, they were implored by the councilors, in the name of common-sense and humanity, to withdraw their words. Instead of complying with the request, here again they repeated the offence. The law was then allowed to take its course. Struck by the gravity of the situation, Abdur Rahman convoked a synod of the ecclesiastics within his kingdom, and as he could not be present in person at their meeting, he deputed an eminent Christian, a councillor of state, to represent him at the assembly. The bishops passed a decree prohibiting all public imprecations against the Prophet, and adopted severe measures against the agitators. But nothing could quell the ardour of these fanatics; the turbulent and impetuous arrogantly defied the authority of their bishops. Some had the audacity to enter the Grand Mosque and to call out — "The kingdom of heaven has come for the faithful, and for you, infidels, the taste of hell-fire." The people were thrown into fury and would have killed the offenders, but the Kazi interposed his authority and saved them from the vengeance of the congregation. The metropolitan was firm and the government energetic; several of the fanatics were imprisoned. But their agitation continued up to Abdur Rahman's death, which took place in 852 a.c.
He was succeeded by his son Mohammed. "In justice," says Ibn ul-Athir, "he followed in the footsteps of his father. He was the first to organise the government of Andalusia (on a regular basis) and to frame rules and regulations for the administration of the state. He improved the condition of the commonalty by his generosity. In the organisation of the kingdom he is likened to Walid, son of Abdul Malik." Immediately on the death of Abdur Rahman the Toledans, assisted by an army sent by the chief of Leon, had again revolted. Mohammed hastened in person against the united forces of the Toledans and Leonese, and met with them near Guadacelete (Wadi Saliteh). The rebels, relying on their numbers, attacked him with great fury, but falling into an ambuscade were literally annihilated. After this, the Toledans made their submission on terms which left them a large share of self-government. The traitors and agitators of Cordova began now to feel the full weight of a justly angered sovereign. Repressive measures were adopted to stamp out the mutiny in the capital, and the fanatical enthusiasts who instigated the people to rebellion, or who carried on treasonable correspondence with the enemy beyond the frontier, suffered the penalty of death. Deprived of its chief promoters, "the singular enthusiasm," says Dozy, to use the mild language of the Christian historian, which had for several years reigned at Cordova, "gradually submitted to the common law, and after a while there remained nothing but its memory."
The Franks as usual took advantage of the internal troubles to make incursions into the northern provinces; and Mohammed had to keep an army always employed in those quarters. In the year 245 a.h. the Normans, after devastating Provence, re-appeared on the coasts of Spain and committed great depredations. They were pursued by the Spanish fleet, and after a hotly-contested fight, were driven off with the loss of several ships. Punitive expeditions were dispatched at regular intervals against the Christian princes of Galicia, Leon, and Navarre. In 861 a.c. "the country of the Baskones" (Navarre) was overrun and its capital (Pamplona) captured. Four years later the Prince of Leon sued for peace, which was granted on an unconditional submission. But more serious disturbances broke out in different parts of the kingdom towards the end of Mohammed's reign. In Aragon a Moslem Spaniard descended from the Visigoths of Spain, made himself master of Saragossa, Tudela, and Huesca, and assumed the kingly title. In the west, a native of Merida named Ibn Merwan, assisted by the chief of Leon (Alfonso III.) raised the standard of revolt. A more formidable rebel appeared soon in Bobastro. The mountainous range between Ronda and Malaga, specially adapted for guerilla warfare, has always been the home of bandits and brigands. Here the generals of Napoleon in later times met with the greatest resistance; and here Omar bin Hafsun, a deserter from the Sultan's army and impost, gathered a band of brigands and established an independent state. The example of these rebels was contagious, and insurrections, fomented partly by the frontier Christian princes and partly by the King of the Franks, broke out in every part of the country. It is surprising that the Arab kingdom did not break to pieces under the weight of these troubles. The success with which it passed through the ordeal at this period shows considerable vitality in the dominant race, and no little ability on the part of the rulers. Too old himself to take the field, the king employed his son Munzir, the heir-apparent, to repress these dangerous risings. Munzir proceeded first towards the north. Saragossa, Rlita, Carthagena, and Lerida were reduced. Abdul Wahid Ruti, "the bravest man of the age'' was captured; and Ismail, the son of Musa, who held a part of Aragon, tendered his submission. In 271 a.h. Munzir marched against Ibn Merwan; he was defeated and his stronghold was rased to the ground. Saragossa had again fallen into the hands of the Aragonese rebels, who were led by Mohammed, a grandson of Musa, who had entered into an alliance with the brigand of Bobastro. It was only after a regular siege that the place was re-captured. Mohammed and his ally Omar bin Hafsun fled into the mountains. No sooner had the royal army retired than they emerged again. In 886 a.c. Munzir again took the field against Omar bin Hafsun. Alhama, where the rebel had taken refuge, was besieged and reduced to dire straits. At this moment news reached the prince's camp that the old king was dead.
Munzir hurriedly raised the siege and hastened to Cordova to assure his succession to the throne. Omar profited by the occasion, and by treachery or force made himself master of a great many castles. Mohammed was a patron of learning and "a lover of science"; "he was discreet and wise, and well versed in the rules of administration." Munzir, who succeeded him, was gifted with energy, prudence, and bravery. Had a longer life been vouchsafed him, there can be no doubt he would have succeeded in restoring complete order in his kingdom. He applied himself vigorously to the work which lay before him, and marched in person against the rebels. Archidona was captured, and Bobastro, the stronghold of Omar, was besieged. Reduced to extremities, the rebel submitted, but immediately after broke the pledge under which he had obtained the royal pardon. Munzir took the field again, but was murdered in a fight near Bobastro treacherously. Although his reign barely lasted two years, the country had prospered, and wealth and comfort had increased among the people.
Munzir was succeeded by his brother Abdullah. "In his time," says Ibn ul-Athir, "Andalusia became filled with disturbance, and rebels arose on every side, and thus it remained throughout his reign." Abdullah ascended the throne under the most fatal conditions. The state, undermined for a long time by racial antipathies, seemed rapidly marching towards ruin and decomposition. The Ameer of Cordova found himself opposed not only to the Spanish mountaineers but also to the Arab aristocracy, who, in the general disorder, perceived an opportunity for independence. Insurrections and revolts broke out in every quarter. There were sanguinary riots between the Arabs and the Biladiun in the districts of Seville and Elvira. Various Berber chiefs established themselves in some of the strongest castles and defied the royal authority. Mentesa, Medina Bani-Salim (in the district of Sidona), Lorca, and Saragossa were held by Arab lords; whilst Ibrahim ibn Hajjaj, a descendant of the Gothic princess Sarah, through whom his family had received considerable property in the district of Seville, possessed himself of this principality. Here he ruled in great state; his government was firm and vigorous, more so than that of the king. All acts of brigandage and breach of public peace were repressed with great severity. Trade, commerce, and arts were encouraged, and every endeavour was made to repair the ravages caused by the riots. Algarve, Beja, San Esteven, Jaen, Murcia, and various other places were held by Moslem Spanish chiefs. Badajoz was in the possession of Ibn Merwan; whilst in Aragon, Mohammed, the son of Lopez, held court as an independent sovereign. Omar bin Hafsun took advantage of these troubles to extend his authority in every direction. He even aspired to the possession of Cordova. The Sultan, who had hitherto indulged in a temporising policy, determined at last to fight for the throne of his fathers, which was in deadly peril of being altogether lost. His general Obaidullah was successful in beating Ibn Hafsun near Polei. This was the turning point in the fortunes of the king, and the victory of Obaidullah saved the monarchy. Polei, Ecija, Archidona, Elvira, and Jaen submitted at once to his authority. Later, an act of humanity, done at the instance of the faithful vizier Badr, brought the willing submission of Ibn Hajjaj. His favourite son had been sent as a hostage to Cordova. Abdullah restored the youth to the father with many marks of consideration, and won the heart and loyalty of Ibn Hajjaj. The reconciliation of the Sultan with this powerful chief was the commencement of a new era. The royal authority began gradually to be re-established in the disaffected tracts. The districts from Algesiras to Niebla submitted without any fight, and their example was followed by several other places of importance. Even the Banu Kasi of Aragon showed signs of returning to subjection. At this stage the old king died at the age of sixty-eight, after a troubled and inglorious reign of nearly twenty-six years.
At the period Saracens had again entered Southern France, this time by the Gulf of Saint Tropes, and spread themselves over Provence and Dauphiny. It was an independent movement, conducted by several adventurous spirits gathered from the seaports of Spain and Africa. Their principal castle was called Fraxietum. In 906 a.c. they traversed the gorges of Dauphiny, and crossing the Piedmont. Mont Cenis, they occupied Piedmont, Liguria, and part of Switzerland. They penetrated into this country as far as the Lake of Constance, where they established colony. In France they occupied Frejus, Marseilles, Switzerland and Grenoble, and Nice was held by them for a considerable time, and it is due to their sway that a part of the town is still called the Canton de Sarrazins.
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