The Idrisides— The Aghlabides— Invasion of Sicily— Its Conquest —The fall of the Aghlabides — The rise of the Fatimides — Conquest of Egypt — Foundation of Cairo — Conquest of Syria, Hijaz, and Yemen —Decline of the Fatimides— The end of the dynasty— Cairo— The Grand Lodge of the Ismailias.
Up to the time of Mahdi, the third Caliph of the House of Abbas, the whole of the African possessions acknowledged the Abbasside sovereignty. In the reign of Hadi, Idris, a descendant of Hassan I., escaped into Western Mauritania, and there, with the assistance of the Berber tribes, who accepted him as their chief and Idrisides Imam, established a powerful kingdom, which for a long time flourished in Northern Africa. He built the city of Fez, and made it his capital; under his enlightened administration it soon became a famous seat of culture and learning. He is said to have been poisoned by an emissary of the Abbassides, and was succeeded on the throne by his infant son, also called Idris, under the regency of the mother and the Vizier Ghalib. Idris-II proved himself a great warrior, and made large conquests towards the south. Ibn Khaldiln says, "The rule of the Abbassides was at this time effaced in the (Mauritania) from Sus ul-Aksa to Shilf (Silves)." On his death in 213 a.h. his son Mohammed became Caliph. His policy of entrusting the provincial governorships to the members of his family appears to have succeeded admirably with one exception, for his brothers whom he apponited as governors remamed loyal to the end.
Mohammed died in 221 a.h., and was succeeded by his son Ali, who was only nine years of age at the time. His accession was loyally accepted by all his subjects, and the government was conducted with such success by faithful servants of his father that the historian observes, "his reign was extremely prosperous." On his death without issue in the twenty-second year of his age, his brother Yahya bin Mohammed was raised to the throne. During his long reign, he extended his power in all directions, and the kingdom advanced in wealth and prosperity. He enlarged and embellished Fez to which peopled flocked from all directions.
Yahya died in 264 a.h., and was succeeded by his son also named Yahya. His oppression led to a revolt, in which he was expelled from the kingdom. He fled to Spain, where he died.
Upon the dethronement of Yahya II., his cousin, Ali bin Omar made himself master of the capital. He did not, however, remain long in possession or Fez, as a Khariji rising compelled him to take shelter in Spain. On the flight of Ali the people of Fez proclaimed a grandson of Idris II. named Yahya their Imam and Caliph. He was a scholar and jurist, and well-versed in traditions. He succeeded for a time in reducing under his power the whole of the old Idriside possessions. His rule, however, came to an abrupt end in 309 a.h., for in that year he was driven out of his kingdom by the Fatimide Governor of Miknasa. He then retired into the private life, and lived at Mahdieh until his death in 331 A.H.
With the. fall of Yahya III. ended the Idriside Caliphate. The various princes of this dynasty possessed themselves of the outlying provinces, and assumed the kingly title. In 319 a.h. Abdur Rahman III. (an-Nasir) sent an expedition into Africa; a large part of Mauritania was annexed, and many of the Idriside princes were deported to Cordova. Western Morocco then fell into the hands of the Spanish Caliphs, whilst the east acknowledged the sway of the Fatimides.
It is already mentioned how in the year 184 a.h. Ifrikia became an autonomous principality. The first prince of this dynasty was Ibrahim bin Aghlab, a man of great administrative talent and energy of character. He founded in the vicinity of Kairowan, a new city, which he named Abbasieh, and made it the seat of his government. He reigned for over twelve years, and was succeeded by his son Abdullah. In his time there was no war or disturbance of any kind; the principality enjoyed perfect peace, and the people prospered and grew rich. He died in 201 a.h., and was succeeded by his brother, Ziadatullah. He is described as a prince of great talent and ambition, and a distinguished patron of arts and learning, but with a haughty and reckless temper, which gave rise to a violent insurrection. After a protracted struggle the rebels were finally defeated, and peace was restored in the country in 208 A.H.,or 209 A.H.
The Arabs had long possessed a settlement in the south of Sicily. The systematic subjugation of the island was undertaken under this Aghlabide sovereign. In 212 A.H. he despatched into Sicily a large force under Asad bin Furat, the Kazi of Kairowan. The primary cause of this invasion is somewhat differently given by the Arab and Christian historians. The latter say that a Byzantine youth, Euphemius, who had stolen a too willing nun from her cloister, was sentenced by the emperor to the amputation of his tongue. He fled to the Saracens of Ifrikia, and induced them to send into the island the expedition which eventually brought the whole of Sicily into Arab power.
The Arab historians mention nothing about the nun. "The emperor of the Romans, who lived at Constantinople, Kustuntunieh," says Ibn ul-Athir, "sent in the year 211 a.h. a patrician, Constantine, as governor of Sicily. Constantine appointed a Roman of the name of Fimi (Euphemius), a brave and wise soldier, to the command of the fleet, and he invaded Ifrikia, and did great damage to the Moslems. In the meantime Constantine received orders from the emperor to throw Fimi into prison and subject him to torture." Fimi, on hearing this, rose in arms, drove Constantine into Catania (Katania), and proclaimed himself King of Sicily. War then broke out between Fimi and his lieutenant, Balata, who was assisted by Michael (Mikhail), governor of Palermo. Fimi suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of Balata, who made himself master of Syracuse (Sarakusa). Fimi thereupon invoked the assistance of Ziadatullah Aghlab, offering him the sovereignty of Sicily.
This brilliant offer induced Ziadatullah to send an army into Sicily. The Saracens landed Sicily, in the Rabi I. of 212 a.h., at a place called Mazura (Mazar of the Arabs). Balata, Fimi's enemy and rival, met them here, and suffered a sanguinary defeat. He fled to Calabria (Kalluria), where he died shortly after. The Moslems rapidly reduced into their power a great many fortresses in the island. Syracuse was besieged, but a pestilence, which broke out in the Saracen camp, carried away Asad and a large number of his troops, and Mohammed bin Abi'l Jawari, Asad's successor, was forced by the Byzantine army sent for the relief of Syracuse to raise the siege. The Moslems succeeded, however, In capturing Mineo (Minao) and Girgenteo (Jurjunt), where they placed strong garrisons. At Kasr Ianna (modern Castrogiovanni) they lost their ally Fimi, who was treacherously murdered by the inhabitants of the place. Mohammed bin Abi'l Jawari dying shortly after, the command was assumed by Zuhair bin Ghous. The Byzantines, who had, in the meantime, been largely reinforced from Constantinople, now made a supreme effort to drive the invaders from the Island. The Saracens were besieged in Mineo, which was reduced to dire straits. Luckily reinforcements arrived for them from Spain as well as Africa. The Byzantines fell back upon Syracuse, and the Saracens again assumed the offensive.
In the Rajab of 216 a.h.'* Palermo, the capital, capitulated on favourable terms. "The occupation of Palermo was, in truth, the beginning of that of the Island." Although a great part of the country had submitted to the Arab rule, systematic administration was not introduced until the arrival of Abul Aghlab Ibrahim bin Abdullah a kinsman of Ziadutullah, as the civil and military governor of Sicily. Under him the districts in the neighbourhood of Mount Etna ("the Mountain of Fire") were brought subjection.
Ziadatullah died in the year 223 of the Hegira, and was succeeded by his brother Abu Ikal Aghlab. His reign was prosperous and successful. Reinforcements were sent to Sicily, and the work of conquest in that direction proceeded apace. The Saracens about this time made a descent into Southern Italy, and captured several strong places on the Calabrian coast.
Aghlab died in 226 a.h., after a short reign of two years and seven months, and was succeeded by his son Abul Abbas Mohammed. He was a great builder, and wise administrator. In the year 228 a.h. Fazl bin Jaafar Hamdani, the of lieutenant of the viceroy of Sicily, landed an expedition into Messina (Messin). Assisted from Naples, Messina resisted the Saracenic attack for two years but in the end capitulated and received generous terms. In the year 232 a.h. Fazl captured the city of Lentini, and carried his victorious arms far into the mainland (Arz ul-Kubra). Calabria and Campania were overrun, and a hundred and fifty towns either reduced or laid under contribution. An Arab fleet sailed up the Tiber, plundered Fundi, and the suburbs of Rome, and laid siege to Gaeta, but the capital was saved by the internal divisions of the Arabs. In 233 a.h. the Saracens took up their "abode" in the city of Tarant (Taranto). In 234 A.H. they obtained the submission of Ragusa (Raghlis). In 235 A.H. they renewed their attack on Rome. A sudden and fearful tempest "which confounded the skill and courage of the stoutest mariners" came to the rescue of the Pope (Leo IV.). The Saracen fleet was dashed to pieces among the rocks and islands of a hostile shore.
The viceroy Ibn Abdullah died in Rajab 236 a.h. at Palermo. The Arab colonists thereupon elected Abbas the son of Fazl as their commander, and their election was confirmed by the sovereign of Ifrikia. Abbas continued vigorously the work of conquest in Sicily as well as on the mainland. In 239 and 240 a.h. Catania, Caltavuturo (Kalat Abi-Sur), and several other places were reduced in rapid succession.
Abbas, the governor of Sicily, died in 247 a.h., and the colonists thereupon elected in his place his son Abdullah, and their choice was confirmed by the Aghlabide prince Abu Ibrahim. Some time after he was replaced by Khafaja bin Sufian. In 250 a.h. the Moslems took possession of the ancient and important city of Noto (Notos), and in the course of the next few years reduced Syracuse, which had hitherto resisted their arms, Abba, Satas, and Castelnuovo (Kasr ul-jadid). In 869 a.c (254 A.H.) Khufaja's son Mohammed again besieged Gaeta and laid the suburbs of Rome under contribution. Khufaja died in 255 a.h., and was succeeded in the governorship by his son Mohammed. During his tenure of office Malta was captured by a fleet under Ahmed bin Omar. Mohammed the son of Khufaja was assassinated in his palace on the 3rd of Rajab 257 a.h.
To maintain the continuity of the narrative relating to Sicily I have had to anticipate the history of the Ifrikian principality. Abu'l Abbas Mohammed died in 242 A.H. He was succeeded by his son Abu Ibrahim Ahmed. Under his rule peace reigned throughout the principality; and there were no disturbances. He treated his subjects and they were happy and prosperous. He built ten thousand forts and outposts made of "stone, brick, and mortar," to protect the country against the inroads of the enemy. Abu Ibrahim Ahmed died in 249 a.h. when his brother, Abu Mohammad Ziadatullah ascended the throne and "walked in the footsteps of his ancestors," but reigned barely eighteen months before he died. His brother Abu Abdullah Mohammed was then raised to the throne. Ibn ul-Athir says he was a learned, wise, and endowed with good qualities. In his rule Byzantines recovered some of their lost possessions in Sicily. Mohammed thereupon built a number of fortresses and outposts to keep them in check. He is said to also have made some conquests on the mainland. Abu Abdullah Mohammed died in 261 a.h., and was succeeded by his brother Ibrahim.
In the beginning of his reign he distinguished himself justice and benevolence towards his subjects, but towards the end developed a ferocious homicidal mania of which led him to slaughter even his own children. The account of his atrocities roused the anger of the Caliph Mutazid, who sent a peremptory order deposing Ibrahim from his government. His son Abu'l Abbas Abdullah, was appointed by the Caliph to the government of Ifrikia. Ibrahim put on the garment of a hermit, set free the crowds of captives whom he had thrown into prison, and crossed over to Sicily to fight the Byzantines. Here he died shortly after.
Abu'l Abbas Abdullah was a kind-hearted and just sovereign, and skilled both in war and in the administration of affairs. But he was assassinated in his sleep by of some of his slaves, at the instigation of his own son, 289 a.h. Abu Mozar (Modhar) Ziadatullah. The parricide was the last of his family who reigned over Ifrikia. After executing the slaves whom he had employed to murder his father, he abandoned himself to debauchery and "the company of buffoons and clowns," and the principality was allowed to drift to ruin. In the meantime a revolution was taking place in Northern Africa, which altered the entire aspect of affairs.
The schism that occurred among the Shiahs on the decease of the apostolical Imam Jaafar has already been of the described. The majority accepted the Imamate of Musa (al-Kazim) whom the Imam had, upon the death of his eldest son Ismail, named as his successor, whilst the rest gave their adhesion to Ismail's son Mohammed, surnamed al-Maktum (the concealed or unrevealed). The The Ismailias, as they were henceforth called, in the course of time amalgamated with their doctrines many esoteric motions borrowed from the philosophy of Mani (Manes). Some of them were decidedly Manichsean in their views, and considered the hidden meaning in words as of more importance than the positive law, and, differing from the general body of Moslems, believed in justification by faith and not by work. This extreme section of the Ismailias received the name of Esoterician (Batinia). So long as they believed implicitly in their Imams, it was not necessary for their future welfare to act in accordance with the dictates of religion. The Karamita (the Carmathians) and the Assassins who afterwards wreaked hevoc on Islamic dominions were the two offshoots of this sect.
Mohammed al-Maktum was succeeded in the Ismailia Imamate by his son Jaafar, surnamed al-Mussadak (the Veracious). Upon his death his son Mohammed, who bore the title of al-Habib (the Friend), became their Imam. He was a man of great ability and ambition, and closely resembled in character the other Mohammed, the father of Saffah and Mansur. He lived at a place called Salamieh, near Hems (Emessa), and from here he sent out missionaries (dais) in all directions to enlist adherents and diffuse the Ismailia cult. The doctrines of his sect thus spread rapidly m Yemen, Yemama, Bahrain, Sind, India, Egypt, and Northern Africa. One of his most zealous and indefatigable missionaries was Abu Abdullah Hussain, at one time Muhtasib of Busorah who afterwards became famous under the designation of the Shiah. In the year 288 a.h. Abu Abdullah proceeded to Africa, and by his wonderful preaching and force of character, which, joined to his piety and asceticism, gave him great influence among the impressionable Berbers, he soon secured the adhesion of the powerful tribe of Kitama to the Imamate of the Ahl ul-Bait. At this time Ibrahim bin Mohammed was the ruler of Ifrikia; and he tried to suppress the Ismailite movement. Abu Abdullah, however, surmounted every difficulty, and the accession of the incompetent Ziadatullah paved his way to success. Whilst the Aghlabide was "lying immersed in pleasure in Rakkada, Abu Abdullah's power waxed in the country, and his missionaries announced to the inhabitants the immediate advent of the Mahdi." Two armies sent by Ziadatullah to oppose the Shiah suffered ignominious defeats. ZiadatuUah then fled to Tripoli, and from there to Asia.
Abu Abdullah made his triumphal entry into the capital of the Aghlabides on Saturday the 1st of Rajab, 296 A.H. Governors were at once despatched throughout the province to assume charge of the cities and preserve order. The wise and merciful policy inaugurated by Abu Abdullah had the effect of conciliating public opinion, and preparing the people to give a hearty and loyal welcome to the master in whose name the conquest was made. Mohammed al-Habib died towards the close of the third century of the Hegira, leaving the Imamate to his son Obaidullah. "You are the Mahdi," said the dying caliph "after my death you will have to fly to a far of the country, where you will meet with severe trials." Obaidullah however, abode quietly at Salamieh, until the Shiah, having brought the tribe of Kitama absolutely under his influence, sent messengers to the Mahdi, imploring him to come to Africa and place himself at the head of the movement. Obaidullah started at once with his son Abu'l Kasim, Abu'l Abbas (a brother of the Shiah), and a few devoted followers, all disguised as merchants.
In spite of the strict secrecy observed by Abu Abdullah in his communications with the Mahdi, the Abbassides got wind of Obaidullah's flight from Salamieh. The Caliph Muktafi distributed throughout the provinces of the empire a description of the fugitive, with orders to seize and imprison any one answering to it. At Tripoli Abu'l Abbas left the Mahdi's party and proceeded to Kairowan. Here he was discovered and thrown into a dungeon, Obaidullah and his son succeeded in evading pursuit or discovery, and in 296 a.h. reached beautiful city on the southern slope of the Grand Atlas, then the capital of the Banu Midrar. Here their luck deserted them. At this time Sijilmasseh was ruled by a Berber prince named Elisaa bin Midrar, who at first received them kindly; but on receipt of a letter from Ziadatullah, threw them into prison. The Shiah, however, was soon afoot with a great army. After releasing his brother Abu'l Abbas from ZiadatuUah's dungeon at Kairowan, he marched against Elisaa, who was defeated and slain. Abu Abdullah then hurried to the prison where the Mahdi and his son lay confined. Placing father and son on horseback, and himself proceeding on foot in front of them, accompanied by all the chiefs of the Kitama, he conducted them to the camp, "shedding tears of joy as he went, and calling out to the people who thronged the streets, 'Behold your master.'" They remained forty days at Sijilmasseh, and then came to Rakkada, where the people of Kairowan took the oath of allegiance to the Mahdi as the Caliph. His rule was now established throughout Ifrikia, and the people with few exceptions acknowledged his authority. Walis were appointed to the government of the different provinces, including Sicily, and efforts were made to repair the ravages of war.
The vigour with which Obaidullah applied himself to the task of government aroused the animosity of Abu'l Abbas, the brother of Abu Abdullah, who had hoped to find in the Mahdi only a roi faineant. Chafing under the loss of power, he entered into a conspiracy with some of the chiefs of the Kitama for overthrowing the Fatimide Caliph. Abu'l Abbas even drew the hitherto faithful Abu Abdullah into his mischievous toils. The Mahdi made every effort to conciliate the two brothers. His endeavours were met by a stubborn refusal. The discovery of a plot for his assassination determined the Mahdi to put them to death, and they were accordingly of executed in their place. The death of the king-maker did not stop the work of conquest, and Obaidullah succeeded in bringing under his sway the greater part of tract stretched from the Libyan Desert to Western Mauritania. In spite of all his efforts to maintain discipline and prevent excesses of the ferocious Berbers, who formed the bulk of his army, committed great atrocities in the course of his wars, which gave rise to a fierce revolt in the succeeding reign.
The Mahdi saw that he must have a strongly fortified capital in case of any sudden outburst against his dynasty. Setting out from Tunis he inspected the entire sea-coast to choose an impregnable site, and at last fixed upon a slip of land jutting out into the sea. Here the city of Mahdieh was begun in 303 A.H., and completed in five years. A strong wall, with gates of iron, enclosed it; and within were built splendid marble palaces, and vast tanks and underground store-houses, which were filled with provisions. "I am now at ease," said Obaidullah, when he saw the finished city, "regarding the [fate of the] Fawatim (the Fatimides)," Obaidullah's rule was firm and vigorous. Even the orthodox Suyuti admits that "Obaidullah extended justice and beneficence to the people, and they inclined towards him." In 309 a.h. he reduced the Idrisides to subjection, but failed to conquer Egypt. Not satisfied with the possession of Mauritania, he cast longing eyes on Spain, when death put an end to his dreams.
After a successful reign of twenty-four years, Obaidullah al-Mahdi died in 322 a.h., and was succeeded by his son Abu'l Kasim Mohammed Nizar, who assumed the title of al-Kaim bi-amr Illah. Kaim was a great warrior, and personally conducted most of his military operations. He was the first of the Fatimide Caliphs who, in order to obtain the command of the Mediterranean, applied himself to the creation of a powerful fleet. After re-establishing his authority in Mauritania, save and except the district of Fez, which had been recovered by the Idrisides, he turned his attention towards the continent of Europe. His ports had been harassed by Italian led pirates from the Italian coast, from Pisa and other places. In reprisal, Kaim overran Southern Italy as far as Gaeta; and his ships of war captured Genoa, which was held by the Saracens for a considerable time. A part of Lombardy (al-Ankaburda) was also brought into subjection. But for a domestic convulsion which taxed all his resources and military skill, there is little doubt that Kaim would have reduced Italy under his power. Unfortunately the pent-up wrath of the people at the excesses of the savage Berbers burst into a furious flame just at the moment when the prospects were most favourable.
The revolt was headed by a Khariji named Abu Yezid Makhlad, son of Kirad, a school-master by profession, who had by his preachings collected a large following among the Berbers of Mount Auress. With political foresight unusual among fanatics, he invited the Spanish Caliph an-Nasir, to despoil the heretic and take his kingdom. In the year 333 of the Hegira, Abu Yezid, who received from his followers the title of Shaikh ul-Muslimin swept down from the mountains with an enormous horde of savages. The Fatimide troops were defeated again and again, city after city was taken by storm, and frightful atrocities were committed by the fanatics. Before long what the Mahdi had foreseen came to pass. The greater part of the country fell into the hands of the Khariji school-master, whilst the rule of Kaim was confined to the walls of Mahdieh and a few other fortified towns on the sea-coast. Abu Yezid tried to carry the capital by assault. Four times he delivered desperate attacks, and each time was repulsed with frightful slaughter. Turning the siege into a blockade, Abu Yezid proceeded towards Susa (Sus of the Arabs), which he tried to take by storm.
Whilst Abu Yezid was laying siege to Susa, Kaim died. He was succeeded on the throne by his son Abu’t Tahir Ismail, surnamed al-Mansur bi-amr Illah a Young man of rare energy and determination. Step by step he beat back the fanatical horde. They had shown no pity on the hour of their success, and none was shown to them in the day of defeat. Those only who submitted received immediate pardon and absolute safety. Abu Yezid fled to Jabl Salat, a precipitous and inaccessible rock rising from a parched desert, which needed eleven days to traverse. Mansur pursued him with relentless fury, and at last cooped up the fanatic and his dwindled following in a castle among the mountains of the Kitama.
The struggle round this place was long and terrible. Abu Yezid endeavoured to cut his way through the besiegers, but was captured and executed. Although the son of Abu Yezid and some of his adherents continued for a while to give trouble, practically the whole of Ifrikia again submitted to the Fatimide rule. Sicily and Calabria, where their authority had been hitherto only partially acknowledged by the Arab colonists, were brought under control. In 339 a.c. Mansur appointed Abu'l Kasim Hassan bin Ali bin Abi'l Hussain al-Kalbi as the viceroy of Sicily and its dependencies. The office remained in Hassan's family for a long time. The Franks, who had made an inroad into Calabria, were defeated in a naval action off the coast of Italy. Mauritania, however, was lost to Mansur, for Abu Yezid's revolt had enabled an-Nasir, the Ommeyade Caliph of Spain, to seize the whole of the Idriside possessions.
Mansur died in 341 a.h,, when his son Abu Tamim Maad ascended the throne under the title of al-Muiz li-din Illah. Al-Muiz is described, even by historians inimical to his family, as a wise, energetic, and chivalrous sovereign, an accomplished scholar, well versed in science and philosophy, and a munificent patron of arts and learning. He was unquestionably the Mamun of the West, and under him North Africa attained the highest pitch of civilisation and prosperity. The people were contented and happy; internal dissensions and disturbances were repressed with vigour; the administration was placed on a systematic basis; rules were framed for the conduct of business; the provinces were divided into districts, which were entrusted to qualified officers who had under them a number of militia and regulars to maintain order. The army and fleet were re-organised, and a great impetus was given to commerce and industry.
Humane in disposition, and gifted with wonderful tact and ability, he won the friendship, if not the attachment, of the chiefs who were most bitterly opposed to his father and grandfather. He received them with marked courtesy and kindness, and from enemies converted them into supporters. His General-in-Chief Jouhar recovered Mauritania from the hands of an-Nasir, who was just then engaged with the Christian insurgents in the North of Spain, whilst Ziri bin Manad, chief of the Sanhaja, crushed the malcontents in the districts of Oran and Bugia. "And the power of Muiz became firmly established in Ifrikia and Maghrib, and his dominion became extensive." In 344 a.h. the Andalusian ships captured a vessel of al-Muiz carrying dispatches to Maghrib. In his rage at the insult, the Fatimide Caliph ordered the Viceroy of Sicily, Hassan bin Ali, to proceed to Spain and lay waste the coast of Almeria. An-Nasir's captains retaliated by devastating the neighbourhood of Susa and Marsikhizr. Henceforth the two Moslem sovereigns, instead of joining their forces for the conquest of Europe, wasted their strength in warring upon each other.
Crete had been conquered in the time of Mamun by the Saracens exiled from Cordova. They had held it since then; had introduced civilisation, arts, and industry, and made it prosperous and flourishing. In 350 a.h. the Byzantines made a supreme effort for its reconquest. A fleet consisting of seven hundred ships of war landed an overwhelming force; the Saracens were overpowered and destroyed. The atrocities committed by the Greeks beggar all description; men were tarred and then burnt alive; no mercy was shown even to the infant in arms, and the women were subjected to terrible outrages.
The loss of Crete was in some measure compensated Final extermination of the Byzantine power in Sicily. They still held in the island several strong places whence they were accustomed to harass the Saracens. Ahmed bin Hassan, the viceroy, applied himself vigorously to the conquest of these cities. The army sent from Byzantine for the relief of the Greeks sustained a heavy defeat on land, and were forced to betake themselves to their ships. These slipped anchor and tried to escape, but were pursued, disastrously beaten, and sunk. By the end of 351 a.h. the whole island was brought into subjection. Sicily has never been so prosperous as under the Kalbite Ameers: mosques, colleges, and schools sprang up on all sides; learning and arts were patronised, and the people prospered. The university of medicine at Palermo rivalled those of Bagdad and Cordova.
In 356 A.H. serious troubles broke out in Egypt, the notables of the province invited Muiz to take possession of the country, and to give them peace and order. In response to their solicitations Muiz despatched a well-appointed army under his lieutenant Jouhar. The Fatimide general entered the capital (Fostat) without opposition, and on the 15th of Shaban 358 a.h. and read the Khutba in the public mosque in the name of Muiz. In 359 A.H. he introduced in the call to prayers the additional sentence: "Hasten to good work."
Jouhar inaugurated the Fatimide rule by founding al-Kahira (modern Cairo), which became later Cairo, the capital of Muiz and his successors. He also obtained the submission of Hijaz and Syria; and prayers were recited in the name of al-Muiz in the Holy Cities. The Karmathians, who were still levying blackmail from the Moslem princes within their reach, were crushed in a single battle near Fostat. Hitherto Muiz had remained in Ifrikia, but on the urgent solicitations of Jouhar he determined to proceed to Egypt. Before doing so he made a careful inspection of his ancestral kingdom. He appointed Bulukkin, the son of the faithful Ziri, to the viceroyalty of Ifrikia with the title of Saif ud-Dowla ("Sword of the Empire"); confirmed Ahmed in the government of Sicily, and made other arrangements for the safety and wise administration of Northern Africa. He then left for east in the Safar of 362 A.H. and entered Cairo during the Moslem Lent, and on the 15th Ramazan, seated on a throne of gold, received the oath of allegiance from the assembled delegates of Egypt, into Cairo.
In spite of their defeat at the hands of Jouhar, the audacity of the Carmathians was still unbounded. They had hitherto levied blackmail from Damascus; the refusal of the Fatimide governor to continue the payment brought them in great force against him. He was defeated and slain, and the city fell into their hands. They then proceeded to invade Egypt, but were met by Muiz at Ain ush-Shams (Heliopolis) and routed with frightful slaughter. This defeat finally broke their power. Whilst the Fatimides were engaged with the Carmathians, a Turkish retainer of the Buyide Muiz ud-Dowla, named Iftikin, made himself master of Damascus and the surrounding country.
Muiz died on Friday the 15th of Rabi II. 365 a.h., and was succeeded by his son Abu Mansur Nizar, who assumed the title of al-Aziz b'Illah. He is described as generous, brave, wise, and humane, "prone to forgiveness even with the power of punishing." He confirmed Bulukkin bin Ziri and the other officers of his father to their respective governments. Iftikin, who had attempted to extend his power in the direction of Palestine and Phoenician littoral, was defeated and taken prisoner. Aziz received him with such kindness that he became the faithful adherent of the Fatimide Caliph until his death.
Under Aziz the Fatimides succeeded in conquering the whole of Syria and part of Mesopotamia, and the Khutba was read in his name not only in Hijaz and Yemen, but also in Mosul, Aleppo, Hamah, Shaizar, and other places. At this time the Fatimide Empire extended from the borders of the Euphrates to the Atlantic, and included the greater portion of Arabia. Hitherto the Kitamians, who had helped in the estabhshment of the dynasty, had supplied the most trusted soldiers of the Fatimides, and their power naturally was great. Aziz formed a corps of Turks and Persians (Deilemites) apparently as a counterpoise against the of Berbers.
Aziz died in the year 386 of the Hegira at Bilbais, or Bilbis, on his way to Syria, and with him ended the glory of the Fatimides. He had on his deathbed confided his young son and heir Mansur to the chief Kazi Mohammed bin an-Noman and Abu Mohammed Hassan bin Ammar, surnamed Amin ud-Dowla ("warden of the empire"), in the hope that under their guidance the lad would prove himself a wise and successful ruler. Mansur was proclaimed Imam and Caliph, with the title of al-Hakim bi-amr-Illah but he soon fell under the influence of an unscrupulous intriguer named Barjawan. The latter was opposed by Ibn Ammar, and their quarrels and rivalry occasioned serious disturbances both in Syria and Egypt. Before long Hakim himself began to show signs of madness. He often issued strange and contradictory orders; the smallest neglect exposed the offender to the punishment of death. In time this mental aberration developed into homicidal mania, and he put to death without any reason a number of prominent men.
Yet in his lucid moments he was a liberal and generous patron of learning and science, and built numerous mosques, colleges, and observatories both in Syria and Egypt. For five-and-twenty years Hakim occupied the throne of his forefathers in this insane manner, but fate at last overtook him. He was fond of solitude, and accustomed to wander about at night. Often he went to a lonesome house on the hill of Mokattam, "either to watch the stars," says Ibn Khaldun, "or to offer his devotions." One night, the night of the 27th of Shawwal, 411 A.H., he had as usual gone therewith two attendants, whom, however, he dismissed at the foot of the hill. From this visit to Mokattam he never returned. His prolonged absence caused alarm, and a search party was was sent out to scour the country. On the top of the hill they found the pony he had ridden with its forelegs hacked by a sword, and in a cistern not far off his clothes pierced by daggers, still buttoned up, but the body was never discovered. No doubt whatever remained that he had been assassinated.
Hakim was actually the founder of a new cult, in which he occupied the central figure, and was regarded as the emanation of the Deity. His followers and disciples believed him to have only disappeared from the earth to appear again in the fulness of time, or to use their own expression, "when it shall please him." This cult is still extant among the Druses of the Lebanon.
Hakim's son, Abu Hashim Ali, was then raised to the throne under the title of Az-Zahir li Izaz din-Illah. For the first four years his aunt, Sitt ul-Mulk, held the Az-Zahir regency. After her death the government was carried by Mizad and Nafir, who had been officials under Hakim. In this reign the greater portion of Syria escaped from the hands of the Fatimides; and an Arab chief of the name of Saleh bin Mirdas made himself master of Aleppo and the surrounding districts.
Zahir died in the thirty-first year of his age and the sixteenth of his reign, and was succeeded by his son Abu Tamim Maad, under the title of al-Mustansir b'Illah. He was only seven years of age, and the government fell into the hands of a number of intriguers, under whose mismanagement the empire rapidly declined in strength and prosperity. In 1047 a.c. the Holy Cities disclaimed allegiance to the Fatimide Caliph; and five years later the Ziride prince of Ifrikia, al-Muiz bin Badis, who bore the title Sharf ud-Dowla threw off the Fatimide yoke, discontinued the Khutba in the name of Mustansir, and acknowledged the Abbasside sovereign al-Kaim as the Pontiff of Islam. The rebellion of Bassasiri and the flight of Kaim from Bagdad created a diversion in favour of Mustansir; and for a whole year the Khutba was read in his name in Irak and its dependencies. But Tughril soon restored the spiritual supremacy of the Abbasside Caliph in Western Asia; and under Alp Arslan, Tughril's successor, the Seljuks drove the Fatimides beyond al- Aarish. To add to the misfortunes of the people, a terrible famine desolated Egypt, and continued, says our author, for seven years. The administration became completely paralysed, and a great part of the country was deserted or ruined. During the height of the distress Mustansir called to his help the famous Badr ul-Jamali, governor of Acre, and invested him with absolute control. Badr ul-Jamali proved a second Joseph to the Fatimide Pharaoh. He restored order in the kingdom, relieved the people, and re-established the authority of the sovereign throughout Egypt. He failed in his attempts to recover Damascus, but succeeded in recapturing the cities of the Phoenician coast. Badr ul-Jamali died in the year 1094 A.C., and was followed a month later by the master who had experienced so much adversity in his life, "that at one time" says Ibn ul-Athir, "there was nothing left to him but the prayer-mat on which he was seated."
Mustansir had nominated his eldest son Nizar as his successor to the throne. But al-Afzal, the son of Badr ul-Jamali, who had succeeded to the office held by his father, raised to the throne a younger brother of Nizar named Abu’l Kasim Ahmed, under the title of al-Mustaali b’lllah. Nizar fled to the governor of Alexandria, who proclaimed him Caliph. Both were defeated and taken prisoner by Afzal. The governor was publicly put to death, whilst nobody knew the fate of Nizar. Jerusalem, which had been held by the Banu-Ortok under the Seljukide sovereign of Damascus, was recaptured by al-Afzal in 1096 A.c. But he did not hold it long, for crusading storm soon burst upon Syria and Palestine, and swept away both Seljukide and Fatimide.
Mustaali died in the Safar of 495 a.h., when al-Afzal, the master of the Fatimide kingdom, raised to the throne the deceased Caliph's infant son Abu Ali al-Mansur under the title of al-Aamir bi-ahkam Illah. Afzal governed the empire with absolute power until Aamir attained majority, and his rule seems to have been on the whole successful and prosperous. In spite of some successes gained by the Egyptians under Afzal's son, Sharf ul-Maali, over the Crusaders, the cities on the Phoenician littoral, which only a short time before had been reconquered by Badr ul-Jamali, fell gradually into power of the Crusaders. The sack of Tripoli has already been described. "The Egyptian troops sent to the relief of the place arrived when all was lost!"
When Aamir attained majority he proved himself a vicious and evil-minded young man, addicted to low pleasures, tyrannical, haughty, and inconsiderate; chafing under the tutelage of his all-powerful vizier, he contrived to have him murdered. Nine years later the same fate overtook him; on his way to a garden "on the island" he was attacked and stabbed to death by a number of Fedais (assassins), who had plotted his murder.
As Aamir's queen was expecting a child, his cousin Abu'l Maimun Abd ul-Majid undertook the regency under the title of al-Hafiz li-din Illah until the birth of the heir to the throne. The child, however, happened to be a girl; Hafiz was then proclaimed in his own right Caliph and Imam of the Fatimides. Shortly after the people had sworn allegiance to him he was deposed and placed in confinement by the vizier Abu Ali Ahmed, the son of al-Afzal, a man of great ability and towering ambition. He was a follower of the Apostolical Imams; and partly in furtherance of his own designs to become the absolute ruler of Egypt, and partly under the influence of his sectarian predilections, he substituted the name of the last Imam, the unfortunate child who disappeared in the cave of Samarra, on the coinage and in the prayers. This continued for a time, but Hafiz plotted from his prison the vizier's death; and on the 15th of Moharram 526 A.H., he was attacked and killed in the Great Garden (al-Bustan ul-Kahir) outside the capital.
Upon Ahmed's death Hafiz was re-instated on the throne; but his restoration was of no advantage to the state, for, without any strength of character, he proved a mere tool in the hands of his vizier, the Ameer ul-Juyush Yanis al-Hafizi, "a fearful man, and great in wickedness," although far-sighted. Yanis was assassinated at the instance, it is said, of Hafiz in the month of Zu'l Hijja of 526 a.h. Hafiz then appointed an Armenian of the name of Bihram as his vizier. The rivalry between Bihram and Rizwan, one of the principal secretaries of state, plunged the country into internecine strife and warfare. Bihram was seized and imprisoned by Hafiz, when Rizwan became vizier. He also rose in arms against his sovereign, but lost his life in the struggle. The conduct of these officers determined Hafiz to keep all the power in his own hands and not to have any vizier in future. And this resolve he maintained up to his death.
Hafiz died in 1149 a.c. His last days were darkened by the gloom of intestine dissensions within the capital. During the whole of his reign, says Ibn ul-Athir, he was subject to the influence of those who surrounded him, especially his viziers.
Hafiz was succeeded by his son Abu Mansur Ismail, under the title of az-Zafir bi-amr'-Illah. Addicted to pleasure of all kinds, and passing his time with unworthy favourites, he was a mere cypher in the state; and all power and influence fell into the hands of the vizier Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn us-Salar. Ibn us-Salar was assassinated in 1153 a.c. by his stepson Abbas, who then became the vizier of Zafir. The position occupied by the Egyptian Caliphs at this time is graphically described by Ibn ul-Athir. "In Egypt the vizierate belonged to him who had force under his command; the Caliphs were powerless; the viziers were like kings; no one obtained the vizierate (in Egypt) after al-Afzal except by war and murder and such like (crimes)." The authority of the Caliph hardly extended beyond the limits of his own palace. In the pages of Osama we see pictured the same symptoms of decadence that he saw in the kingdom of Jerusalem. The revolts, the rivalries, the plots and counterplots, the anarchy that had transformed Cairo into a field of battle given up to the violence of factions, foretold an early dissolution. Up to this time the Egyptians had managed to hold Ascalon, but the dissensions which broke out in Egypt on the 548 a.h. murder of Ibn us-Salar gave to the Crusaders the opportunity of reducing that important city.
In the month of Moharram 549 a.h., Zafir was assassinated by Nasr the son of Abbas. In order to divert suspicion from himself and his son, the treacherous and cruel vizier put to death az-Zafir's brothers, Jibrail and Yusuf, on the false charge of having murdered the Caliph. He then placed on the throne Abu’l Kasim Isa, the infant son of Zafir, under the title of al-Faiz ba-nasr Illah, and attempted to rule the kingdom as its absolute master. But the punishment of his crime was not long in coming. The sisters of Zafir soon discovered the truth. They cut off their hair and sent it in a letter in deep black to Talaii bin Ruzzik, governor of Upper Egypt, invoking his help to avenge the murder of Zafir. Talaii marched upon Cairo with a large body of soldiers and a troop of nomadic Arabs all in mourning. Abbas and Nasr, deserted by the army, fled with all their treasure towards Syria. They were accompanied by Ameer Osama and a large following. The sisters of az-Zafir had, in the meantime, written to the Crusaders at Ascalon, offering them a large sum of money to intercept Abbas and his son. Incited by the promised reward, the Franks sallied from the castle to meet the fugitives; in the fight which ensued Abbas was killed with a number of his followers, and Nasr was taken prisoner. The Franks then put Nasr into an iron cage and sent him to Cairo, where, after being cruelly tortured, he was impaled on a cross. Talaii then assumed the vizierate with the title of al-Malik us-Saleh, and took charge of the infant Caliph.
Al-Faiz died before attaining his majority. The vizier, instead of proclaiming any of the adult members of the royal family, who were numerous and able, selected the infant son of Yusuf, the brother of Zafir, for the dignity of Caliph. The child's name was, Abu Mohammed Abdullah Ali, and he was placed on the throne with the title of al-Aazid li-din-Illah. As-Saleh continued to exercise absolute authority, and his conduct grew gradually most violent. As-Saleh was assassinated by a palace conspiracy according to Ibn Khaldun, or by a Batinia according to Makrisi, in 1161 a.c. His son Ruzzik then became the vizier with the title of al-Malik ul-Aadil, but he was soon displaced by Shawer as-Saadi, who was driven out by Zirgham, an Arab, descended from Munzirs of ancient Hira, who held the office of Sahib ul- Bab, a position similar to that of the Hajib in the Abbasside court. Shawer fled to Nur ud-din Mahmud at Damascus, and returned with assistance from the son of Zangi. Zirgham was killed in a battle between his troops and the Syrians, and Shawer again assumed the vizierate. The rest of the story of the Fatimides has already been told. Al-Aazid died in 1171 a.c, and with him ended the dynasty founded by ObaiduUah al-Mahdi.
The circuit of Cairo was traced by Jouhar on the Jamadi II. 359 a.h. (May 14, 969 a.c), and the walls were completed before the arrival of al-Muiz. Magnificent structures rapidly sprang up on all sides, giving to Cairo "the victorious city " a most imposing appearance. It was traversed by numerous roads and streets; the former leading into the suburbs were called Harat whilst the latter apparently ended within the walls, and were designated Akhtat. The Caliph's principal palace, composed of twelve pavilions, was situated in the eastern part of Cairo, and was called al-Kasr ul-Kabir ush-Sharki (the grand eastern palace), or Kasr ul-Muizi (the Palace of Muiz). Ten gates gave access to the Palace, which was guarded by a select body of troops, composed of five hundred foot-soldiers and an equal number of mounted men. Twelve thousand servants ministered to the wants of the inmates. A subterranean passage led to another magnificent palace, which was situated on the Nile in the western part of the city, and was called Kasr ul-Gharbi (the Western Palace), or Kasr ul-Bahr (Maritime Palace). There were other palaces and villas belonging to the Caliph both in the suburbs and the city, lavishly decorated by the best artists of the time. The mansions of the Ameers vied in splendour, although not in size or extent, with those of the sovereigns. Beautiful gardens surrounded the houses of the rich and opulent citizens. The number of these gardens and the magnificence of the houses seem to have struck with surprise travellers from Europe who visited Cairo so late as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries of the Christian era. Mosques, colleges, hospitals, and caravanserais of immense size adorned the city.
The four cathedral mosques:(1) Al-Jamaa ul-Azhar (the Brilliant Mosque);(2) al-Jamaa un-Nur (the Mosque of Light);(3) Jamaa ul-Hakim (the mosque of Hakim bi-amr Illah); and (4) Jamaa ul-Muiz (the mosque of Muiz), were specially grand and beautiful. One special feature of Cairo under the Fatimides was the Hussainieh, a building where, on the anniversary of the murder of the martyr Hussain on the field of Kerbela, they held meetings of mourning. Finely-built public baths were to be found in large numbers in every part of the town both for men and women. Those set apart for the latter were easily distinguishable from the others by their ornamentation. The markets, which contained twenty thousand shops, were superb, and stocked with the products of the world. The city was surrounded by a strong wall pierced by several gates. Among out-door amusements, falconry and the hunting of antelopes and deer of all kinds, generally with hounds, formed the principal pastime of the rich, whilst the riverside fellaheen often engaged in the pursuit of the hippopotami.
The administration was conducted on lines similar to those of the Abbassides, although some of the offices bore different names. The most important difference between the two systems of government was the preponderating influence possessed in Egypt by the military commander, the Ameer ul-Juyush, who combined in his person the office of vizier as well as of commander-in- chief of the forces, and who, under the weaker monarchs of the Fatimide dynasty, effaced the personality of the sovereign. Under the first ten Caliphs, however, they fulfilled the ordinary functions of their office. The decline of the Fatimides began in the reign of Mustansir. From his time intrigue took the place of statesmanship. Character and moral worth were regarded of little moment; "political services" opened the door to honour and preferment; the scholar made room for the spy and the pander; the honest, independent and loyal for the sycophant and parasite. The rulers tried to govern by disintegrating the people and creating factions; their attempts only recoiled on themselves with deadly effect.
The early Fatimides, like their ancient prototypes the first Ptolemies, were grand supporters of learning and science. They established colleges, public libraries, and scientific institutes (Dar ul-hikmat), richly supplied with books and mathematical instruments, and a large professorial staff. Access to and the use of these literary treasures were free to all, and writing materials were afforded gratis. The Caliphs frequently held learned disputations, at which the professors of these academies appeared, divided according to their different faculties, logicians, mathematicians, jurists, and physicians, dressed in their Khalaa, or doctoral mantles. Two hundred and fifty-seven thousand ducats, raised by a carefully regulated taxation, constituted the annual revenue of the colleges, and was employed for paying the salaries of the professors and officials, and providing the requisites for teaching, and other objects of public scientific instruction. In these institutes they taught every branch of human knowledge. Observatories for the cultivation of astronomy were erected in various places; and litterateurs and scientists were invited from Asia and Spain to give lustre to the reigns of these Moslem Pharaohs.
No history of the Fatimides can be complete without some mention of the extraordinary propaganda established by them, for in their desire to promote the diffusion of knowledge among their subjects, they did not ignore the political advantages of obtaining proselytes to their sect. To the central Dar ul-hikmat "House of Science " was attached a Grand Lodge, where the candidates for initiation into the esoteric doctrines of Ismailism were instructed in the articles of the faith. Twice a week, every Monday and Wednesday, the Dai ud-Daawat, the Grand Prior of the Lodge, convened meetings, which were frequented by both men and women, dressed in white, occupying separate seats. These assemblages were named Majalis ul-hikmat or "philosophical conferences." Before the initiation the Dai ud-Dawaat waited on the Imam (the Caliph), the Grand Master, and read to him the discourse he proposed to deliver to the neophytes, and received his sign-manual on the cover of the manuscript. After the lecture the pupils kissed the hands of the Grand Prior, and reverently touched the signature of the Master with their foreheads. Makrisi's account of the different degrees of initiation adopted in this Lodge forms an invaluable record of freemasonry. In fact, the Lodge at Cairo became the model of all the Lodges created afterwards in Christendom.
As a political factor, the Fatimide Dar ul-Hikmat came to an end with the dynasty to which it owed its origin; but its love of learning and science illumined the cities of Egypt until it died away under the anarchy of the later Mamlukes, whilst its esoteric spirit has survived the lapse of ages, and finds expression in countries and among communities widely differing from each other in instinct and genius.
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